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Abstract
The role of mesoscale orography along the central California coast in the development and evolution of a coastal jet and rainband is investigated using a high-resolution, triply nested, nonhydrostatic numerical model. Comparison of the model simulations, which use horizontal grid increments of 5 and 2 km on the inner computational meshes, with a coastal mesoscale observation network indicates that the finescale structure of the jet and rainband dynamics are adequately simulated, although phase and orientation errors occur. The observed and simulated near-surface winds have maximum speeds that exceed 22 m s−1 and a direction nearly parallel to the coastline and topography.
Force balance analysis indicates that blocking in the lowest 500 m and flow over the coastal range above this layer contribute to mesoscale pressure perturbations, including pressure ridging upstream of the coastal mountains, which forces the ageostrophic dynamics of the coastal jet. Pressure perturbations associated with the topographic flows induce a complex mesoscale response that adds rich mesoscale structure to the jet including a wake region that forms on the lee side of the coastal range that limits the horizontal scale of the jet. Sensitivity test results underscore the multiprocess character of the coastal dynamics and the importance of the coastal topography and differential frictional drag at the land–sea interface for the formation and amplification of the jet. The mesoscale response to steep coastal topography results in a 45% enhancement to the near-surface jet strength. The onshore movement of line convection at the leading edge of a weak front is impeded by steep coastal topography in both the radar observations and numerical simulations. Low-level blocking forces the rainband to emulate a wedge-shaped structure with a coastal jet that is dynamically trapped between the steep coastal topography and the front.
Abstract
The role of mesoscale orography along the central California coast in the development and evolution of a coastal jet and rainband is investigated using a high-resolution, triply nested, nonhydrostatic numerical model. Comparison of the model simulations, which use horizontal grid increments of 5 and 2 km on the inner computational meshes, with a coastal mesoscale observation network indicates that the finescale structure of the jet and rainband dynamics are adequately simulated, although phase and orientation errors occur. The observed and simulated near-surface winds have maximum speeds that exceed 22 m s−1 and a direction nearly parallel to the coastline and topography.
Force balance analysis indicates that blocking in the lowest 500 m and flow over the coastal range above this layer contribute to mesoscale pressure perturbations, including pressure ridging upstream of the coastal mountains, which forces the ageostrophic dynamics of the coastal jet. Pressure perturbations associated with the topographic flows induce a complex mesoscale response that adds rich mesoscale structure to the jet including a wake region that forms on the lee side of the coastal range that limits the horizontal scale of the jet. Sensitivity test results underscore the multiprocess character of the coastal dynamics and the importance of the coastal topography and differential frictional drag at the land–sea interface for the formation and amplification of the jet. The mesoscale response to steep coastal topography results in a 45% enhancement to the near-surface jet strength. The onshore movement of line convection at the leading edge of a weak front is impeded by steep coastal topography in both the radar observations and numerical simulations. Low-level blocking forces the rainband to emulate a wedge-shaped structure with a coastal jet that is dynamically trapped between the steep coastal topography and the front.
Abstract
The impact of ocean surface waves on the structure and intensity of three tropical cyclones and a topographically forced bora event is investigated using a coupled atmosphere–ocean wave modeling system. The coupled system is capable of representing surface momentum fluxes that are enhanced due to young ocean waves in fetch-limited conditions, which yield surface roughness lengths that significantly depart from the conventional Charnock-type formulation. In general, the impact of ocean-wave-induced stress on the tropical cyclone central pressure was quite variable with ocean wave feedback resulting in changes ranging from 8 hPa deeper to 3 hPa shallower. The increased low-level stress due to the ocean waves reduced the near-surface winds by 2–3 m s−1, with local differences in excess of 10 m s−1, which directly led to a 10% reduction in the significant wave height maxima. The reduced significant wave heights in the coupled model were in closer agreement with observations for Tropical Cyclone Bonnie than for the uncoupled model. The tropical cyclone tracks were generally insensitive to ocean wave feedback effects. The boundary layer structure was found to be generally insensitive to large roughness enhancements associated with coupled ocean wave feedbacks for topographically forced high wind phenomena, such as the bora.
Abstract
The impact of ocean surface waves on the structure and intensity of three tropical cyclones and a topographically forced bora event is investigated using a coupled atmosphere–ocean wave modeling system. The coupled system is capable of representing surface momentum fluxes that are enhanced due to young ocean waves in fetch-limited conditions, which yield surface roughness lengths that significantly depart from the conventional Charnock-type formulation. In general, the impact of ocean-wave-induced stress on the tropical cyclone central pressure was quite variable with ocean wave feedback resulting in changes ranging from 8 hPa deeper to 3 hPa shallower. The increased low-level stress due to the ocean waves reduced the near-surface winds by 2–3 m s−1, with local differences in excess of 10 m s−1, which directly led to a 10% reduction in the significant wave height maxima. The reduced significant wave heights in the coupled model were in closer agreement with observations for Tropical Cyclone Bonnie than for the uncoupled model. The tropical cyclone tracks were generally insensitive to ocean wave feedback effects. The boundary layer structure was found to be generally insensitive to large roughness enhancements associated with coupled ocean wave feedbacks for topographically forced high wind phenomena, such as the bora.
Abstract
A suite of high-resolution two-dimensional ensemble simulations are used to investigate the predictability of mountain waves, wave breaking, and downslope windstorms. For relatively low hills and mountains, perturbation growth is weak and ensemble spread is small. Gravity waves and wave breaking associated with higher mountains exhibit rapid perturbation growth and large ensemble variance. Near the regime boundary between mountain waves and wave breaking, a bimodal response is apparent with large ensemble variance. Several ensemble members exhibit a trapped wave response and others reveal a hydraulic jump and large-amplitude breaking in the stratosphere. The bimodality of the wave response brings into question the appropriateness of commonly used ensemble statistics, such as the ensemble mean, in these situations. Small uncertainties in the initial state within observational error limits result in significant ensemble spread in the strength of the downslope wind speed, wave breaking, and wave momentum flux. These results indicate that the theoretical transition across the regime boundary for gravity wave breaking can be interpreted as a finite-width or blurred transition zone from a practical predictability standpoint.
Abstract
A suite of high-resolution two-dimensional ensemble simulations are used to investigate the predictability of mountain waves, wave breaking, and downslope windstorms. For relatively low hills and mountains, perturbation growth is weak and ensemble spread is small. Gravity waves and wave breaking associated with higher mountains exhibit rapid perturbation growth and large ensemble variance. Near the regime boundary between mountain waves and wave breaking, a bimodal response is apparent with large ensemble variance. Several ensemble members exhibit a trapped wave response and others reveal a hydraulic jump and large-amplitude breaking in the stratosphere. The bimodality of the wave response brings into question the appropriateness of commonly used ensemble statistics, such as the ensemble mean, in these situations. Small uncertainties in the initial state within observational error limits result in significant ensemble spread in the strength of the downslope wind speed, wave breaking, and wave momentum flux. These results indicate that the theoretical transition across the regime boundary for gravity wave breaking can be interpreted as a finite-width or blurred transition zone from a practical predictability standpoint.
Abstract
The impact of diurnal forcing on a downslope wind event that occurred in Owens Valley in California during the Sierra Rotors Project (SRP) in the spring of 2004 has been examined based on observational analysis and diagnosis of numerical simulations. The observations indicate that while the upstream flow was characterized by persistent westerlies at and above the mountaintop level the cross-valley winds in Owens Valley exhibited strong diurnal variation. The numerical simulations using the Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) capture many of the observed salient features and indicate that the in-valley flow evolved among three states during a diurnal cycle. Before sunrise, moderate downslope winds were confined to the western slope of Owens Valley (shallow penetration state). Surface heating after sunrise weakened the downslope winds and mountain waves and eventually led to the decoupling of the well-mixed valley air from the westerlies aloft around local noon (decoupled state). The westerlies plunged into the valley in the afternoon and propagated across the valley floor (in-valley westerly state). After sunset, the westerlies within the valley retreated toward the western slope, where the downslope winds persisted throughout the night.
Abstract
The impact of diurnal forcing on a downslope wind event that occurred in Owens Valley in California during the Sierra Rotors Project (SRP) in the spring of 2004 has been examined based on observational analysis and diagnosis of numerical simulations. The observations indicate that while the upstream flow was characterized by persistent westerlies at and above the mountaintop level the cross-valley winds in Owens Valley exhibited strong diurnal variation. The numerical simulations using the Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) capture many of the observed salient features and indicate that the in-valley flow evolved among three states during a diurnal cycle. Before sunrise, moderate downslope winds were confined to the western slope of Owens Valley (shallow penetration state). Surface heating after sunrise weakened the downslope winds and mountain waves and eventually led to the decoupling of the well-mixed valley air from the westerlies aloft around local noon (decoupled state). The westerlies plunged into the valley in the afternoon and propagated across the valley floor (in-valley westerly state). After sunset, the westerlies within the valley retreated toward the western slope, where the downslope winds persisted throughout the night.
Abstract
An adjoint modeling system based upon the Naval Research Laboratory’s Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System’s atmospheric component has been developed. The system includes the adjoint model of the explicit moist physics parameterization, which allows for gradients with respect to the initial hydrometeor concentrations to be calculated. This work focuses on the ability of the system to calculate evolved perturbations and gradients for the hydrometeor variables. Tests of the tangent linear and adjoint models for an idealized convective case at high model resolution (4-km horizontal grid spacing) are presented in this study. The tangent linear approximation is shown to be acceptable for all model variables (including the hydrometeors) with sizable perturbations for forecasts of 1 h. The adjoint model was utilized with the same convective case to demonstrate its applicability in four-dimensional variational data assimilation experiments. Identical twin experiments were conducted where the adjoint model produced gradients for all model variables, leading to improved analyses and forecasts. The best agreement between model forecasts and simulated observations occurred when information on all model variables was assimilated. In the case where only conventional data were assimilated, the agreement was not as good in the early forecast period. However, the hydrometeor values spun up quickly, and at later times, the forecast performed almost as well as when all data were assimilated.
Abstract
An adjoint modeling system based upon the Naval Research Laboratory’s Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System’s atmospheric component has been developed. The system includes the adjoint model of the explicit moist physics parameterization, which allows for gradients with respect to the initial hydrometeor concentrations to be calculated. This work focuses on the ability of the system to calculate evolved perturbations and gradients for the hydrometeor variables. Tests of the tangent linear and adjoint models for an idealized convective case at high model resolution (4-km horizontal grid spacing) are presented in this study. The tangent linear approximation is shown to be acceptable for all model variables (including the hydrometeors) with sizable perturbations for forecasts of 1 h. The adjoint model was utilized with the same convective case to demonstrate its applicability in four-dimensional variational data assimilation experiments. Identical twin experiments were conducted where the adjoint model produced gradients for all model variables, leading to improved analyses and forecasts. The best agreement between model forecasts and simulated observations occurred when information on all model variables was assimilated. In the case where only conventional data were assimilated, the agreement was not as good in the early forecast period. However, the hydrometeor values spun up quickly, and at later times, the forecast performed almost as well as when all data were assimilated.
Abstract
The impact of moist processes on mountain waves over Sierra Nevada Mountain Range is investigated in this study. Aircraft measurements over Owens Valley obtained during the Terrain-induced Rotor Experiment (T-REX) indicate that mountain waves were generally weaker when the relative humidity maximum near the mountaintop level was above 70%. Four moist cases with a RH maximum near the mountaintop level greater than 90% have been further examined using a mesoscale model and a linear wave model. Two competing mechanisms governing the influence of moisture on mountain waves have been identified. The first mechanism involves low-level moisture that enhances flow–terrain interaction by reducing windward flow blocking. In the second mechanism, the moist airflow tends to damp mountain waves through destratifying the airflow and reducing the buoyancy frequency. The second mechanism dominates in the presence of a deep moist layer in the lower to middle troposphere, and the wave amplitude is significantly reduced associated with a smaller moist buoyancy frequency. With a shallow moist layer and strong low-level flow, the two mechanisms can become comparable in magnitude and largely offset each other.
Abstract
The impact of moist processes on mountain waves over Sierra Nevada Mountain Range is investigated in this study. Aircraft measurements over Owens Valley obtained during the Terrain-induced Rotor Experiment (T-REX) indicate that mountain waves were generally weaker when the relative humidity maximum near the mountaintop level was above 70%. Four moist cases with a RH maximum near the mountaintop level greater than 90% have been further examined using a mesoscale model and a linear wave model. Two competing mechanisms governing the influence of moisture on mountain waves have been identified. The first mechanism involves low-level moisture that enhances flow–terrain interaction by reducing windward flow blocking. In the second mechanism, the moist airflow tends to damp mountain waves through destratifying the airflow and reducing the buoyancy frequency. The second mechanism dominates in the presence of a deep moist layer in the lower to middle troposphere, and the wave amplitude is significantly reduced associated with a smaller moist buoyancy frequency. With a shallow moist layer and strong low-level flow, the two mechanisms can become comparable in magnitude and largely offset each other.
Abstract
Two topographically generated cirrus plume events have been examined through satellite observations and real-data simulations. On 30 October 2002, an approximately 70-km-wide cirrus plume, revealed by a high-resolution Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) image and a series of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) images, originated from the Sierra Nevada ridge and extended northeastward for more than 400 km. On 5 December 2000, an approximately 400-km-wide cloud plume originated from the Southern Rocky Mountain massif and extended eastward for more than 500 km, the development of which was captured by a series of GOES images. The real-data simulations of the two cirrus plume events successfully capture the presence of these plumes and show reasonable agreement with the MODIS and GOES images in terms of the timing, location, orientation, length, and altitude of these cloud plumes. The synoptic and mesoscale aspects of the plume events, and the dynamics and microphysics relevant to the plume formation, have been discussed. Two common ingredients relevant to the cirrus plume formation have been identified, namely, a relatively deep moist layer aloft with high relative humidity and low temperature (≤−40°C near the cloud top), and strong updrafts over high terrain and slow descent downstream in the upper troposphere associated with terrain-induced inertia–gravity waves. The rapid increase of the relative humidity associated with strong updrafts creates a high number concentration of small ice crystals through homogeneous nucleation. The overpopulated ice crystals decrease the relative humidity, which, in return, inhibits small crystals from growing into large crystals. The small crystals with slow terminal velocities (<0.2 m s−1) can be advected hundreds of kilometers before falling out of the moist layer.
Abstract
Two topographically generated cirrus plume events have been examined through satellite observations and real-data simulations. On 30 October 2002, an approximately 70-km-wide cirrus plume, revealed by a high-resolution Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) image and a series of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) images, originated from the Sierra Nevada ridge and extended northeastward for more than 400 km. On 5 December 2000, an approximately 400-km-wide cloud plume originated from the Southern Rocky Mountain massif and extended eastward for more than 500 km, the development of which was captured by a series of GOES images. The real-data simulations of the two cirrus plume events successfully capture the presence of these plumes and show reasonable agreement with the MODIS and GOES images in terms of the timing, location, orientation, length, and altitude of these cloud plumes. The synoptic and mesoscale aspects of the plume events, and the dynamics and microphysics relevant to the plume formation, have been discussed. Two common ingredients relevant to the cirrus plume formation have been identified, namely, a relatively deep moist layer aloft with high relative humidity and low temperature (≤−40°C near the cloud top), and strong updrafts over high terrain and slow descent downstream in the upper troposphere associated with terrain-induced inertia–gravity waves. The rapid increase of the relative humidity associated with strong updrafts creates a high number concentration of small ice crystals through homogeneous nucleation. The overpopulated ice crystals decrease the relative humidity, which, in return, inhibits small crystals from growing into large crystals. The small crystals with slow terminal velocities (<0.2 m s−1) can be advected hundreds of kilometers before falling out of the moist layer.
Abstract
Dropsonde data collected during the NASA Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel (HS3) field campaign from 16 research missions spanning 6 tropical cyclones (TCs) are investigated, with an emphasis on TC outflow and the warm core. The Global Hawk (GH) AV-6 aircraft provided a unique opportunity to investigate the outflow characteristics due to a combination of 18+-h flight durations and the ability to release dropsondes from high altitudes above 100 hPa. Intensifying TCs are found to be associated with stronger upper-level divergence and radial outflow relative to nonintensifying TCs in the sample, regardless of current intensity. A layer of 2–4 m s−1 inflow 20–50 hPa deep is also observed 50–100 hPa above the maximum outflow layer, which appears to be associated with lower-stratospheric descent above the eye. The potential temperature of the outflow is found to be more strongly correlated with the equivalent potential temperature of the boundary layer inflow than to the present storm intensity, consistent with the outflow temperature having a stronger relationship with potential intensity than actual intensity. Finally, the outflow originates from a region of low inertial stability that extends above the cyclone from 300 to 150 hPa and from 50- to 200-km radius.
The unique nature of this dataset allows the height and structure of the warm core also to be investigated. The magnitude of the warm core was found to be positively correlated with TC intensity, while the height of the warm core was weakly positively correlated with intensity. Finally, neither the height nor magnitude of the warm core exhibits any meaningful relationship with intensity change.
Abstract
Dropsonde data collected during the NASA Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel (HS3) field campaign from 16 research missions spanning 6 tropical cyclones (TCs) are investigated, with an emphasis on TC outflow and the warm core. The Global Hawk (GH) AV-6 aircraft provided a unique opportunity to investigate the outflow characteristics due to a combination of 18+-h flight durations and the ability to release dropsondes from high altitudes above 100 hPa. Intensifying TCs are found to be associated with stronger upper-level divergence and radial outflow relative to nonintensifying TCs in the sample, regardless of current intensity. A layer of 2–4 m s−1 inflow 20–50 hPa deep is also observed 50–100 hPa above the maximum outflow layer, which appears to be associated with lower-stratospheric descent above the eye. The potential temperature of the outflow is found to be more strongly correlated with the equivalent potential temperature of the boundary layer inflow than to the present storm intensity, consistent with the outflow temperature having a stronger relationship with potential intensity than actual intensity. Finally, the outflow originates from a region of low inertial stability that extends above the cyclone from 300 to 150 hPa and from 50- to 200-km radius.
The unique nature of this dataset allows the height and structure of the warm core also to be investigated. The magnitude of the warm core was found to be positively correlated with TC intensity, while the height of the warm core was weakly positively correlated with intensity. Finally, neither the height nor magnitude of the warm core exhibits any meaningful relationship with intensity change.
Abstract
The Pennsylvania State University-NCAR Mesoscale Model is used to examine the structure and dynamics of three low-level jets (LLJs) observed during the second intensive observation period of the Genesis of Atlantic Lows Experiment: 1) a Piedmont LLJ along the east slope of the Appalachians, 2) a coastal LLJ (the focus of this study) along the Carolina coastline, and 3) an LLJ to the rein of a cold-frontal system positioned over the Gulf Stream. Geostrophic forcing was important for the formation of the LLJs. Shallow local baroclinity near the top of the cold dome associated with the cold air dammed to the east of the Appalachian Mountains forced the Piedmont LLJ. An analysis of the model momentum tendencies reveals that the coastal LLJ developed and was maintained by strong geostrophic forcing associated with the coastal baroclinic zone, and its strength was modulated by strong, inertial accelerations. Significant horizontal structure in the coastal LLJ developed during the daytime as a result of the different vertical mixing properties associated with continental and maritime parcel source regions.
Model sensitivity experiments indicate that diabatic processes substantially influence the evolution of the coastal and cold-frontal LLJs, Latent heating associated with banded precipitation over the Gulf Strum to the rear of the front was the primary Forcing mechanism for the frontal LLJ. Sensible heating within the marine atmospheric boundary layer acted to enhance the coastal baroclinic zone and low-level geostrophic forcing, and to subsequently strengthen the coastal LLJ. Cold-air damming and strong lower-tropospheric sensible and latent heating in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream, which frequently occur during autumn and winter months along the East Coast, combine to produce a favorable mesoscale environment for LLJ formation with a wind direction parallel to the coastline.
Abstract
The Pennsylvania State University-NCAR Mesoscale Model is used to examine the structure and dynamics of three low-level jets (LLJs) observed during the second intensive observation period of the Genesis of Atlantic Lows Experiment: 1) a Piedmont LLJ along the east slope of the Appalachians, 2) a coastal LLJ (the focus of this study) along the Carolina coastline, and 3) an LLJ to the rein of a cold-frontal system positioned over the Gulf Stream. Geostrophic forcing was important for the formation of the LLJs. Shallow local baroclinity near the top of the cold dome associated with the cold air dammed to the east of the Appalachian Mountains forced the Piedmont LLJ. An analysis of the model momentum tendencies reveals that the coastal LLJ developed and was maintained by strong geostrophic forcing associated with the coastal baroclinic zone, and its strength was modulated by strong, inertial accelerations. Significant horizontal structure in the coastal LLJ developed during the daytime as a result of the different vertical mixing properties associated with continental and maritime parcel source regions.
Model sensitivity experiments indicate that diabatic processes substantially influence the evolution of the coastal and cold-frontal LLJs, Latent heating associated with banded precipitation over the Gulf Strum to the rear of the front was the primary Forcing mechanism for the frontal LLJ. Sensible heating within the marine atmospheric boundary layer acted to enhance the coastal baroclinic zone and low-level geostrophic forcing, and to subsequently strengthen the coastal LLJ. Cold-air damming and strong lower-tropospheric sensible and latent heating in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream, which frequently occur during autumn and winter months along the East Coast, combine to produce a favorable mesoscale environment for LLJ formation with a wind direction parallel to the coastline.
Abstract
The Pennsylvania State University-NCAR Mesoscale Model is used to examine the structure and dynamics of coastal frontogenesis and mesoscale cyclogenesis observed during intensive observation period 2 (IOP 2) of the Genesis of Atlantic lows Experiment (GALE). The model accurately simulates many of the observed mesoscale Features including cold-air damming to the cast of the Appalachian Mountains, a coastal trough, coastal frontogenesis, and mesoscale cyclogenesis.
The coastal front becomes apparent approximately 6 h after the formation of a coastal trough in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream. An analysis of the model results indicates that both latent beating from banded precipitation over the Gulf Stream and surface sensible heating contribute to trough development. The deformation resulting from the isallobaric accelerations, associated with the pressure changes that occur as the coastal trough forms, initiates the coastal frontogenesis. Numerical sensitivity tests reveal that the diabatic processes dominate the coastal trough and front development. Initially, the frontogenetic effects of the deformation over the Gulf Stream are opposed by the frontolytic differential diabatic effects. The frontogenctic effects of differential diabatic heating at the coastline promote the westward movement of the northern portion of the front. With this westward movement of the coastal front, the deformation and diabatic effects act in concert to significantly strengthen the baroclinic zone.
A small-scale weak cyclone develops along the coastal front as a result of the strong low-level diabatic forcing associated with intense marine atmospheric boundary layer sensible heating and latent heating from copious precipitation. The mesoscale cyclone is characterized by a warm-core structure, with areas of ascent, cyclonic vorticity, and convergence confined to the lowest 3 km of the atmosphere. As the coastal cyclone moves northward along the coastal front, the baroclinic zone weakens substantially to its rear due to diabatic heating of the postfrontal air mass and strengthening westerlies to the rear of the cyclone.
Abstract
The Pennsylvania State University-NCAR Mesoscale Model is used to examine the structure and dynamics of coastal frontogenesis and mesoscale cyclogenesis observed during intensive observation period 2 (IOP 2) of the Genesis of Atlantic lows Experiment (GALE). The model accurately simulates many of the observed mesoscale Features including cold-air damming to the cast of the Appalachian Mountains, a coastal trough, coastal frontogenesis, and mesoscale cyclogenesis.
The coastal front becomes apparent approximately 6 h after the formation of a coastal trough in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream. An analysis of the model results indicates that both latent beating from banded precipitation over the Gulf Stream and surface sensible heating contribute to trough development. The deformation resulting from the isallobaric accelerations, associated with the pressure changes that occur as the coastal trough forms, initiates the coastal frontogenesis. Numerical sensitivity tests reveal that the diabatic processes dominate the coastal trough and front development. Initially, the frontogenetic effects of the deformation over the Gulf Stream are opposed by the frontolytic differential diabatic effects. The frontogenctic effects of differential diabatic heating at the coastline promote the westward movement of the northern portion of the front. With this westward movement of the coastal front, the deformation and diabatic effects act in concert to significantly strengthen the baroclinic zone.
A small-scale weak cyclone develops along the coastal front as a result of the strong low-level diabatic forcing associated with intense marine atmospheric boundary layer sensible heating and latent heating from copious precipitation. The mesoscale cyclone is characterized by a warm-core structure, with areas of ascent, cyclonic vorticity, and convergence confined to the lowest 3 km of the atmosphere. As the coastal cyclone moves northward along the coastal front, the baroclinic zone weakens substantially to its rear due to diabatic heating of the postfrontal air mass and strengthening westerlies to the rear of the cyclone.
