Search Results
You are looking at 1 - 10 of 16 items for
- Author or Editor: James R. Miller Jr. x
- Refine by Access: All Content x
Abstract
No abstract available.
Abstract
No abstract available.
Abstract
No abstract available.
Abstract
No abstract available.
Abstract
Spatially homogeneous climate regions were developed from long-term monthly temperature and precipitation data for a subset of the U.S. Northern Plains. Climate regions were initially defined using the “best” of three agglomerative and hierarchical clustering methodologies, then the clusters were objectively modified using a “pseudohierarchical” iterative improvement technique. Under the premise of hierarchical cluster analysis, once an object has been assigned to a cluster, it cannot later he reassigned to a different cluster, even if it is statistically desirable. The objective modification technique used herein is employed to compensate for this problem.
Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to reduce a 147-station dataset, consisting of 24 climatic variables averaged over the 1931–1990 period, to three orthogonal components. The new standardized mars, which explain 93% of the original dataset variance, were then subjected to the Ward's, average linkage, and complete linkage clustering methods. The average linkage method produced the most representative statistical results in identifying the climate regions. An iterative improvement technique was then utilized to test “border station” membership and to modify the climate region houses. Fifteen climate regions resulted from the clustering (with two single-station clusters in the Black Hills alone), although they age just one possible partitioning of the data. The within-cluster variability is generally the same for the 15 climate regions and the corresponding 21 National Climatic Data Center (NCM) climate divisions. However, since data within-cluster variability tends to decrease with increasing cluster number, this result favors the new climate regions. Additionally, the new climate regions am shown to be superior to the NCDC climate, divisions in wont of between-cluster variability. These results suggest that the NCDC climate divisions could be redefined, improving their climatic homogeneity.
Abstract
Spatially homogeneous climate regions were developed from long-term monthly temperature and precipitation data for a subset of the U.S. Northern Plains. Climate regions were initially defined using the “best” of three agglomerative and hierarchical clustering methodologies, then the clusters were objectively modified using a “pseudohierarchical” iterative improvement technique. Under the premise of hierarchical cluster analysis, once an object has been assigned to a cluster, it cannot later he reassigned to a different cluster, even if it is statistically desirable. The objective modification technique used herein is employed to compensate for this problem.
Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to reduce a 147-station dataset, consisting of 24 climatic variables averaged over the 1931–1990 period, to three orthogonal components. The new standardized mars, which explain 93% of the original dataset variance, were then subjected to the Ward's, average linkage, and complete linkage clustering methods. The average linkage method produced the most representative statistical results in identifying the climate regions. An iterative improvement technique was then utilized to test “border station” membership and to modify the climate region houses. Fifteen climate regions resulted from the clustering (with two single-station clusters in the Black Hills alone), although they age just one possible partitioning of the data. The within-cluster variability is generally the same for the 15 climate regions and the corresponding 21 National Climatic Data Center (NCM) climate divisions. However, since data within-cluster variability tends to decrease with increasing cluster number, this result favors the new climate regions. Additionally, the new climate regions am shown to be superior to the NCDC climate, divisions in wont of between-cluster variability. These results suggest that the NCDC climate divisions could be redefined, improving their climatic homogeneity.
Abstract
Monthly total precipitation and mean temperature data records extending from the late nineteenth century to 1990 were collected for 147 stations in South Dakota, North Dakota, and portions of adjacent states and provinces. This region, defined as the Northern Plains region (NPR), was examined for patterns associated with the warm phase (ENSO) and the cold phase (LNSO) of the Southern Oscillation to elucidate some of the debate concerning a signal in this area. Based on a correlation analysis, the NPR was treated as having one spatial degree of freedom.
Using Monte Carlo simulations of the Student's t-test statistic, four seasons with significant changes in mean precipitation or temperature during either ENSO or LNSO were identified. A highly significant signal was evident during the ENSO April to October season for precipitation, where the mean precipitation increased 7.21 cm for the 23 events studied. Here 20 of these 23 ENSO events exhibited precipitation above the median value, and 14 of the 23 events were in the upper quartile. In contrast, a strong signal for decreased LNSO precipitation was noted where May to August precipitation averaged 3.91 cm lower during the 17 events, with similar significance values. Complementing the enhanced ENSO warm season precipitation, the August to October ten-iperatme decreased by 2.17°C, with a significant number of events in both the lowest half and lowest quartile. Finally, temperature averaged 4.67°C cooler during LNSO winters. These results will be useful for limited-season prediction of precipitation and temperature tendencies across the NPR.
It is interesting to note that the initial ENSO years did not reveal a significant temperature increase during the NPR winter, which is in contrast to similar studies. However, by slightly modifying the years that were classified as ENSO years, a significant winter temperature response was indicated. This suggests that there is a tendency for warmer NPR winters during ENSO; however, this was not statistically significant.
Abstract
Monthly total precipitation and mean temperature data records extending from the late nineteenth century to 1990 were collected for 147 stations in South Dakota, North Dakota, and portions of adjacent states and provinces. This region, defined as the Northern Plains region (NPR), was examined for patterns associated with the warm phase (ENSO) and the cold phase (LNSO) of the Southern Oscillation to elucidate some of the debate concerning a signal in this area. Based on a correlation analysis, the NPR was treated as having one spatial degree of freedom.
Using Monte Carlo simulations of the Student's t-test statistic, four seasons with significant changes in mean precipitation or temperature during either ENSO or LNSO were identified. A highly significant signal was evident during the ENSO April to October season for precipitation, where the mean precipitation increased 7.21 cm for the 23 events studied. Here 20 of these 23 ENSO events exhibited precipitation above the median value, and 14 of the 23 events were in the upper quartile. In contrast, a strong signal for decreased LNSO precipitation was noted where May to August precipitation averaged 3.91 cm lower during the 17 events, with similar significance values. Complementing the enhanced ENSO warm season precipitation, the August to October ten-iperatme decreased by 2.17°C, with a significant number of events in both the lowest half and lowest quartile. Finally, temperature averaged 4.67°C cooler during LNSO winters. These results will be useful for limited-season prediction of precipitation and temperature tendencies across the NPR.
It is interesting to note that the initial ENSO years did not reveal a significant temperature increase during the NPR winter, which is in contrast to similar studies. However, by slightly modifying the years that were classified as ENSO years, a significant winter temperature response was indicated. This suggests that there is a tendency for warmer NPR winters during ENSO; however, this was not statistically significant.
Abstract
Rain rates and their evolution during summertime convective storms were analyzed for the semiarid climate of the northern High Plains. Radar data from a total of 750 radar echo clusters from the 1980 and 1981 summer cloud seeding operations of the North Dakota Cloud Modification project (NDCMP) were used. The analysis suggests that the average rain rate R¯ among storm is, in a first approximation, independent of the total rain volume if the entire storm duration is considered in the averaging process. This average rain rate depends primarily on the reflectivity threshold considered in calculating the area coverage integrated over the lifetime of the storm, the storm, the area-time integral (ATI). For the 25 dBz reflectivity threshold used in the ATI computations, R¯ was 4.0 mm h−1 with a standard deviation of 1.55 mm h−1, being ∼20% higher for wet mason conditions.
The evolution of rain rates during storms was analyzed by dividing each storm lifetime into 10 min. 1, 2 and 4 h, and growing and decaying periods. A 10 min time increment was used in computing the parameters for all time intervals. A storm cluster reached its maximum growth after an average of 56% of its lifetime. The average rain rate for the growing period exceeded that for the decaying period by about 10%. As the time interval used in computations approached the storm lifetime, the scatter of the average rain rates was reduced, thus increasing the accuracy of rainfall estimates using the area time integral. The value of R¯ remained independent of the total rain volume when the growing or decaying periods of storms were considered separately. The total rain volume was also well correlated with the maximum single-scan rain volume. These findings suggest the possibility of estimating total storm rain volume at its maximum stage of development.
It is hoped that improvements in rainfall estimation over area using satellite data may result from further studies since the precipitating part of a cloud picture can be more accurately defined for the growing period of a cloud's history.
Abstract
Rain rates and their evolution during summertime convective storms were analyzed for the semiarid climate of the northern High Plains. Radar data from a total of 750 radar echo clusters from the 1980 and 1981 summer cloud seeding operations of the North Dakota Cloud Modification project (NDCMP) were used. The analysis suggests that the average rain rate R¯ among storm is, in a first approximation, independent of the total rain volume if the entire storm duration is considered in the averaging process. This average rain rate depends primarily on the reflectivity threshold considered in calculating the area coverage integrated over the lifetime of the storm, the storm, the area-time integral (ATI). For the 25 dBz reflectivity threshold used in the ATI computations, R¯ was 4.0 mm h−1 with a standard deviation of 1.55 mm h−1, being ∼20% higher for wet mason conditions.
The evolution of rain rates during storms was analyzed by dividing each storm lifetime into 10 min. 1, 2 and 4 h, and growing and decaying periods. A 10 min time increment was used in computing the parameters for all time intervals. A storm cluster reached its maximum growth after an average of 56% of its lifetime. The average rain rate for the growing period exceeded that for the decaying period by about 10%. As the time interval used in computations approached the storm lifetime, the scatter of the average rain rates was reduced, thus increasing the accuracy of rainfall estimates using the area time integral. The value of R¯ remained independent of the total rain volume when the growing or decaying periods of storms were considered separately. The total rain volume was also well correlated with the maximum single-scan rain volume. These findings suggest the possibility of estimating total storm rain volume at its maximum stage of development.
It is hoped that improvements in rainfall estimation over area using satellite data may result from further studies since the precipitating part of a cloud picture can be more accurately defined for the growing period of a cloud's history.
Abstract
Two mesoscale case studies in the semi-arid climate of southeastern Montana were carried out on 1 May and 3 June 1980. I May was an unstable, rainy day with two rain periods over the mesonet area, and 3 June was a potentially unstable day, with a cold frontal passage in the afternoon producing a very intense convective event.
Data from an instrumented mesoscale network (supporting the HIPLEX Montana experiment located between Miles City and Baker), a 5 cm radar, soundings, satellite (GOES), and synoptic maps were considered. The mesonet wind, temperature and moisture data were processed, computed every 15 min, and compared with radar rain patterns.
The study confirmed that convergence cell development within the surface kinematic fields precedes radar echoes and is directly related to the convective event. The areas involved in the vertical motions generating storms are much larger compared to those reported in humid climates. The “areal convergence” is a better storm predictor than the maximum convergence point value. A cloud merging effect related to the storm intensity and reduced rain efficiencies were also found.
The structure of the divergence field over the whole network experienced a cyclic evolution in both cases. This cyclic evolution is identified as a potential predictor for rain beginning 25–70 min after the last cycle before the rain phase.
Abstract
Two mesoscale case studies in the semi-arid climate of southeastern Montana were carried out on 1 May and 3 June 1980. I May was an unstable, rainy day with two rain periods over the mesonet area, and 3 June was a potentially unstable day, with a cold frontal passage in the afternoon producing a very intense convective event.
Data from an instrumented mesoscale network (supporting the HIPLEX Montana experiment located between Miles City and Baker), a 5 cm radar, soundings, satellite (GOES), and synoptic maps were considered. The mesonet wind, temperature and moisture data were processed, computed every 15 min, and compared with radar rain patterns.
The study confirmed that convergence cell development within the surface kinematic fields precedes radar echoes and is directly related to the convective event. The areas involved in the vertical motions generating storms are much larger compared to those reported in humid climates. The “areal convergence” is a better storm predictor than the maximum convergence point value. A cloud merging effect related to the storm intensity and reduced rain efficiencies were also found.
The structure of the divergence field over the whole network experienced a cyclic evolution in both cases. This cyclic evolution is identified as a potential predictor for rain beginning 25–70 min after the last cycle before the rain phase.
Abstract
Early work attempting to apply GOES rapid scan satellite data to a recently developed simple radar technique used to estimate convective rain volumes over areas in a semiarid environment (the northern Great Plains) is described.
Called the Area-Time-Integral (ATI) technique, it provides a means of estimating total rain volumes over fixed and floating target areas. The basis of the method is the existence of a strong correlation between the radar echo area coverage integrated over the lifetime of the storm and the radar estimated rain volume. The technique does not require the consideration of the structure of the radar intensities to generate rain volumes. but only the area covered by radar echoes. This fact might reduce the source of errors generated by the structure differences between the radar and the satellite signatures above given thresholds.
Satellite and radar data from the 1981 Cooperative Convective Precipitation Experiment (CCOPE) and the North Dakota Cloud Modification Project (NDCMP) are used. Consecutive time steps with both radar reflectivities and satellite (VIS and IR) rapid wan data were considered during the evolution of six convective clusters: three on 12 June, and three on 2 July 1981. Radar echoes with reflectivity values ≥ 25 dBZ were used to define the area of rainfall and the respective digital unit thresholds within the satellite data delineating the rainy part of the cloud area. Correlation of the ATI versus IR digital count values was obtained for every time step and for the storm lifetime, respectively.
A comparison of the stepwise evolution of radar parameters such as echo areas maximum echo heights, maximum reflectivities and satellite parameters such as threshold count values and coldest cloud top temperature is presented graphically and reflects the multicell characteristics of the convective clusters. Also, a comparison of radar and satellite parameters for the cluster lifetime is made. Satellite parameters pertaining to the cluster lifetime were derived both dependently and independently of radar data.
The main purpose of this investigation is to compute convective rain volume of a convective cluster by application of the ATI technique based only on satellite data. As such, the key element is to determine the ATI from satellite data without consideration of radar data. This is possible if trends of satellite products generated independently are similar to those of satellite products based upon radar observations as done here.
A parallel with the two-step techniques generally used to estimate rain volume from satellite data is made. To delineate the rainy part of a cloud area, a regression analysis is used. The regression relate a satellite-independent product to a satellite-dependent product. For a given storm. the satellite-independent product is first computed; then the regression equation gives the ATI, Finally, the rain volume is obtained by using the ATI versus rain volume relationship.
By applying the ATI/rain volume relationship to satellite data, the errors generated by the complicated multiple area-volume transform relations am reduced, as similar errors were reduced when the technique was applied to radar data. In addition, a regression analysis gives more accurate estimates than a single threshold when used to delineate an area covered by rain events from an area covered by clouds. The advantages of the ATI technique are based on the fact that the technique operates on a storm lifetime integrated basis, while the previous techniques operate on a time-step basis. The new technique generates only total rain volume estimates (not rain rates). This indeed is a limitation.
The analyses of six convective clusters suggest that the extension of the ATI technique using satellite data holds promise.
Abstract
Early work attempting to apply GOES rapid scan satellite data to a recently developed simple radar technique used to estimate convective rain volumes over areas in a semiarid environment (the northern Great Plains) is described.
Called the Area-Time-Integral (ATI) technique, it provides a means of estimating total rain volumes over fixed and floating target areas. The basis of the method is the existence of a strong correlation between the radar echo area coverage integrated over the lifetime of the storm and the radar estimated rain volume. The technique does not require the consideration of the structure of the radar intensities to generate rain volumes. but only the area covered by radar echoes. This fact might reduce the source of errors generated by the structure differences between the radar and the satellite signatures above given thresholds.
Satellite and radar data from the 1981 Cooperative Convective Precipitation Experiment (CCOPE) and the North Dakota Cloud Modification Project (NDCMP) are used. Consecutive time steps with both radar reflectivities and satellite (VIS and IR) rapid wan data were considered during the evolution of six convective clusters: three on 12 June, and three on 2 July 1981. Radar echoes with reflectivity values ≥ 25 dBZ were used to define the area of rainfall and the respective digital unit thresholds within the satellite data delineating the rainy part of the cloud area. Correlation of the ATI versus IR digital count values was obtained for every time step and for the storm lifetime, respectively.
A comparison of the stepwise evolution of radar parameters such as echo areas maximum echo heights, maximum reflectivities and satellite parameters such as threshold count values and coldest cloud top temperature is presented graphically and reflects the multicell characteristics of the convective clusters. Also, a comparison of radar and satellite parameters for the cluster lifetime is made. Satellite parameters pertaining to the cluster lifetime were derived both dependently and independently of radar data.
The main purpose of this investigation is to compute convective rain volume of a convective cluster by application of the ATI technique based only on satellite data. As such, the key element is to determine the ATI from satellite data without consideration of radar data. This is possible if trends of satellite products generated independently are similar to those of satellite products based upon radar observations as done here.
A parallel with the two-step techniques generally used to estimate rain volume from satellite data is made. To delineate the rainy part of a cloud area, a regression analysis is used. The regression relate a satellite-independent product to a satellite-dependent product. For a given storm. the satellite-independent product is first computed; then the regression equation gives the ATI, Finally, the rain volume is obtained by using the ATI versus rain volume relationship.
By applying the ATI/rain volume relationship to satellite data, the errors generated by the complicated multiple area-volume transform relations am reduced, as similar errors were reduced when the technique was applied to radar data. In addition, a regression analysis gives more accurate estimates than a single threshold when used to delineate an area covered by rain events from an area covered by clouds. The advantages of the ATI technique are based on the fact that the technique operates on a storm lifetime integrated basis, while the previous techniques operate on a time-step basis. The new technique generates only total rain volume estimates (not rain rates). This indeed is a limitation.
The analyses of six convective clusters suggest that the extension of the ATI technique using satellite data holds promise.
Abstract
A gaseous tracer, sulfur hexafluoride, was used to follow the path of two different AgI cloud seeding aerosols in cumulus clouds. The materials were released at cloud base or midlevels. Plumes sampled at midlevels were found to be relatively narrow and embedded within updrafts or downdrafts; relatively high concentrations of the tracer were observed in some downdrafts. Plumes with diameters comparable to the cloud diameters were found in the upper 20% of the clouds. These observations suggest only limited dispersion of the plumes in the clouds, with greater mixing occurring at cloud top. Similar behavior of the in-cloud plume is observed in results from a two-dimensional, numerical cloud model used to simulate the introduction of seeding materials into convective clouds. Observations of the ice crystal production rates are consistent with the results of recent laboratory findings concerning the properties of the seeding agents. The usefulness of this tracer technique in studying transport, diffusion and ice activation in cumulus clouds is discussed.
Abstract
A gaseous tracer, sulfur hexafluoride, was used to follow the path of two different AgI cloud seeding aerosols in cumulus clouds. The materials were released at cloud base or midlevels. Plumes sampled at midlevels were found to be relatively narrow and embedded within updrafts or downdrafts; relatively high concentrations of the tracer were observed in some downdrafts. Plumes with diameters comparable to the cloud diameters were found in the upper 20% of the clouds. These observations suggest only limited dispersion of the plumes in the clouds, with greater mixing occurring at cloud top. Similar behavior of the in-cloud plume is observed in results from a two-dimensional, numerical cloud model used to simulate the introduction of seeding materials into convective clouds. Observations of the ice crystal production rates are consistent with the results of recent laboratory findings concerning the properties of the seeding agents. The usefulness of this tracer technique in studying transport, diffusion and ice activation in cumulus clouds is discussed.
Abstract
Results of statistical analyses for HIPLEX-1, a randomized cloud seeding experiment, are presented. The analyses are based principally on multi-response permutation procedures (MRPP) as specified before the HIPLEX-1 experiment was initiated. Even though the sample sizes are very small, due in part to the premature termination of this experiment, the three primary response variables measured in the first five minutes following treatment indicate pronounced differences in the development of ice crystals between nonseeded and seeded events. However, the response variables measured more than five minutes after treatment generally do not indicate obvious differences in the subsequent development of precipitation between nonseeded and seeded events. This lack of difference is a possible consequence of 1) lack of a seeding effect, 2) inadequacies in the physical hypothesis, or 3) the small sample sizes. Consequently, only the initial steps in the HIPLEX-1 physical hypothesis could be confirmed in this evaluation of the experiment.
Abstract
Results of statistical analyses for HIPLEX-1, a randomized cloud seeding experiment, are presented. The analyses are based principally on multi-response permutation procedures (MRPP) as specified before the HIPLEX-1 experiment was initiated. Even though the sample sizes are very small, due in part to the premature termination of this experiment, the three primary response variables measured in the first five minutes following treatment indicate pronounced differences in the development of ice crystals between nonseeded and seeded events. However, the response variables measured more than five minutes after treatment generally do not indicate obvious differences in the subsequent development of precipitation between nonseeded and seeded events. This lack of difference is a possible consequence of 1) lack of a seeding effect, 2) inadequacies in the physical hypothesis, or 3) the small sample sizes. Consequently, only the initial steps in the HIPLEX-1 physical hypothesis could be confirmed in this evaluation of the experiment.
Abstract
The design and conduct of HIPLEX-1, a randomized seeding experiment carried out on small cumulus congestus clouds in eastern Montana, are outlined. The seeding agent was dry ice, introduced in an effort to produce microphysical effects, especially the earlier formation of precipitation in the seeded clouds. The earlier formation was expected to increase both the probability and the amount of precipitation from those small clouds with short lifetimes. The experimental unit selection procedure, treatment and randomization procedures, the physical hypothesis, measurement procedures and the response variables defined for the experiment are discussed. Procedures used to calculate the response variables from aircraft and radar measurements are summarized and the values of those variables for the 20 HIPLEX-1 test cases from 1979 and 1980 are tabulated.
Abstract
The design and conduct of HIPLEX-1, a randomized seeding experiment carried out on small cumulus congestus clouds in eastern Montana, are outlined. The seeding agent was dry ice, introduced in an effort to produce microphysical effects, especially the earlier formation of precipitation in the seeded clouds. The earlier formation was expected to increase both the probability and the amount of precipitation from those small clouds with short lifetimes. The experimental unit selection procedure, treatment and randomization procedures, the physical hypothesis, measurement procedures and the response variables defined for the experiment are discussed. Procedures used to calculate the response variables from aircraft and radar measurements are summarized and the values of those variables for the 20 HIPLEX-1 test cases from 1979 and 1980 are tabulated.
