Abstract

The existence of an annual variation in height and temperature of the tropopause over tropical regions has long been recognized, but has not been fully explained. In this paper it is proposed that the variation is a fairly direct response to the annual variation in average tropical surface insolation. The variation in insolation causes a corresponding annual cycle in average tropical sea surface temperature with a total range of order 1 K. The consequent variation in absolute humidity in turn produces an annual variation in upper tropospheric potential temperatures, and hence in the height and temperature of the tropopause.

The physical link between the surface and the tropopause is provided by convection in the cores of the giant cumulonimbus clouds (hot towers) of the tropical oceanic regions, in which air parcels can achieve the maximum possible heating by release of latent heat. The process is modeled quantitatively in a simplified way, and excellent agreement is found between the predicted and observed phase and amplitude of the annual variation in tropopause potential temperature.

Since the regular seasonal variation in insolation is relatively small in the tropics, the annual variation in sun-earth distance is an important factor in the variation of surface insolation. The annual cycle in the properties of the tropical tropopause thus provides the first identifiable effect of the earth's orbital eccentricity on climate parameters.

Abstract

This review begins with a brief look at the early perspectives on turbulence and the role of Dave Atlas in the unfolding of mysteries concerning waves and turbulence as seen by powerful radars. The remainder of the review is concerned with recent developments that have resulted in part from several decades of radar and Doppler radar profiler research that have been built upon the earlier foundation.

A substantial part of this review is concerned with evaluating the intensity of atmospheric turbulence. The refractivity turbulence structure-function parameter C ² _n  , where n is radio refractive index, is a common metric for evaluating the intensity of refractivity turbulence and progress has been made in evaluating its climatology. The eddy dissipation rate is a common measure of the intensity of turbulence and a key parameter in the Kolmogorov theory for locally homogeneous isotropic turbulence. Much progress has been made in the measurement of the eddy dissipation rate under a variety of meteorological conditions including within clouds and in the presence of precipitation. Recently, a new approach using dual frequencies has been utilized with improved results.

It has long been recognized that atmospheric turbulence especially under hydrostatically stable conditions is nonhomogeneous and layered. The layering means that the eddy dissipation and eddy diffusivity is highly variable especially in the vertical. There is ample observational evidence that layered fine structure is responsible for the aspect sensitive echoes observed by vertically directed very high frequency VHF profilers. In situ observations by several groups have verified that coherent submeter-scale structure is present in the refractivity field sufficient to account for the “clear air” radar echoes. However, despite some progress there is still no consensus on how these coherent structures are produced and maintained.

Advances in numerical modeling have led to new insights by simulating the structures observed by radars. This has been done utilizing direct numerical simulation (DNS) and large eddy simulation (LES). While DNS is especially powerful for examining the breaking of internal waves and the transition to turbulence, LES had been especially valuable in modeling the atmospheric boundary layer.

Internal gravity waves occupy the band of intrinsic frequencies bounded above by the Brunt–Väisälä frequency and below by the inertial frequency. These waves have many sources and several studies in the past decade have improved our understanding of their origin. Observational studies have shown that the amplitude of the mesoscale spectrum of motions is greater over mountainous regions than over flat terrain or oceans. Thus, it would appear that flow over nonuniform terrain is an important source for waves. Several numerical studies have successfully simulated the generation of internal waves from convection. Most of these are believed to result from deep convection with substantial wave motion extending into the upper troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Gravity waves known as convection waves are often seen in the stable free atmosphere that overlay convective boundary layers.

The METRAC^™ positioning system is a ground-based radio location system that makes use of the Doppler principle in order to track an inexpensive, expendable transmitter. A prototype system has recently been built and evaluated for the Environmental Protection Agency for possible use in the Regional Air Pollution Study Program. This paper presents a brief description of the METRAC system and some of the results of a field test of the prototype system conducted in Minneapolis. The field test consisted of a comparison of wind profiles derived from the METRAC system with wind profiles derived from simultaneous rawinsonde and theodolite tracking. The results of this test demonstrate the great accuracy and high-resolution of winds measured by the prototype system.

Abstract

VHF wind profiler measurements of zonal and meridional winds are compared with the NCEP–NCAR reanalysis at sites in the tropical Pacific. By December 1999 the profilers at Darwin, Australia, and Biak, Indonesia, in the western Pacific; Christmas Island, Kiribati, in the central Pacific; and Piura Peru, in the eastern Pacific had collected between 8 and 13 yr of nearly continuous data. While these profilers routinely observe winds up to about 20 km, only winds at Christmas Island are assimilated into the reanalysis. The long period of profiler operation provides an opportunity to study differences between the profiler and reanalysis winds in the equatorial Pacific, a region with geographically sparse observations. Mean and seasonal mean zonal and meridional winds are used to identify differences in the profiler and reanalysis winds. Two potential causes for the discrepancy between profiler and reanalysis winds are identified. The first of these is related to different spatial and temporal characteristics of the reanalysis and profiler data. The second cause is the geographical sparseness of rawinsonde data, and not assimilating wind profiler observations. The closest agreement between the mean and seasonal mean zonal winds was found at Christmas Island, a site at which profiler winds are assimilated. A good agreement between reanalysis and profiler meridional and zonal winds is also shown at Darwin, where nearby rawinsonde observations are available. The poorest agreement was found at Piura (where profiler winds are not assimilated), the closest rawinsonde is almost 2000 km from the profiler site, and topography is not adequately resolved in the reanalysis.

Abstract

This paper describes a method of absolutely calibrating and routinely monitoring the reflectivity calibration from a scanning weather radar using a vertically profiling radar that has been absolutely calibrated using a collocated surface disdrometer. The three instruments have different temporal and spatial resolutions, and the concept of upscaling is used to relate the small resolution volume disdrometer observations with the large resolution volume scanning radar observations. This study uses observations collected from a surface disdrometer, two profiling radars, and the National Weather Service (NWS) Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) scanning weather radar during the Texas–Florida Underflight-phase B (TEFLUN-B) ground validation field campaign held in central Florida during August and September 1998.

The statistics from the 2062 matched profiling and scanning radar observations during this 2-month period indicate that the WSR-88D radar had a reflectivity 0.7 dBZ higher than the disdrometer-calibrated profiler, the standard deviation was 2.4 dBZ, and the 95% confidence interval was 0.1 dBZ. This study implies that although there is large variability between individual matched observations, the precision of a series of observations is good, allowing meaningful comparisons useful for calibration and monitoring.

Abstract

An algorithm has been developed that classifies precipitating clouds into either stratiform, mixed stratiform/convective, deep convective, or shallow convective clouds by analyzing the vertical structure of reflectivity, velocity, and spectral width derived from measurements made with the vertical beam of a 915-MHz Doppler wind profiler. The precipitating clouds classified as stratiform and convective clouds match the physical and radar properties deduced by Doppler weather radars in the GATE and EMEX programs. The mixed stratiform/convective cloud category is a hybrid regime containing a melting-layer signature associated with stratiform clouds yet is turbulent above the melting level similar to convective clouds. Shallow convective clouds have hydrometeors confined entirely below the melting level implying that warm rain processes are occurring exclusively. The algorithm is illustrated by classifying precipitating clouds from 10 months of observations at Manus Island (2°S, 147°E) in the western Pacific. The sensitivity of the algorithm to threshold criteria is investigated using the Manus Island data.

Abstract

Observations from a 16-month field study using two vertically pointing radars and a disdrometer at Wallops Island are analyzed to examine the consistency of the multi-instrument observations with respect to reflectivity and Z–R relations. The vertically pointing radars were operated at S and K bands and had a very good agreement in reflectivity at a gate centered on 175 and 177 m above ground level over a variety of storms. This agreement occurred even though the sampling volumes were of different size and even though the S band measured the reflectivity factor directly, whereas the K-band radar deduced it from attenuated K-band measurements. Indeed, the radar agreement in reflectivity at the collocated range gates was superior to that between the disdrometer and either radar. This is attributed in large part to the spatial separation of the disdrometer and radar sample volumes, although the lesser agreement observed in a prior collocated disdrometer–disdrometer comparison suggests the larger size of the radar sample volumes as well as the better overlap also play a role. Vertical variations in the observations were examined with the aid of the two radar profilers. As expected, the agreement between the disdrometer reflectivity and the reflectivity seen in the vertically pointing radars decreased with height. The effect of these vertical variations on determinations of Z–R relation coefficients was then examined, using a number of different methods for finding the best-fitting coefficients. The coefficient of the Z–R relation derived from paired disdrometer rain rate and radar reflectivity decreased with height, while the exponent of the Z–R relation increased with height. The coefficient and exponent of the Z–R relations also showed sensitivity to the choice of derivation method [linear and nonlinear least squares, fixed exponent, minimizing the root-mean-square difference (RMSD), and probability matching]. The influence of the time lag between the radar and disdrometer measurements was explored by examining the RMSD in reflectivity for paired measurements between 0- and 4-min lag. The no-lag conditions had the lowest RMSD up to 400 m, while 1-min lag gave the lowest RMSD at higher heights. The coefficient and exponent of the Z–R relations, on the other hand, did not have a significant change between no-lag- and 1-min-lag-based pairs.

Abstract

Doppler radar profilers are widely used for routine measurement of wind, especially in the lower troposphere. The same profilers with minor modifications are useful tools for precipitation research. Specifically, the profilers are now increasingly being used to explore the structure of precipitating cloud systems and to provide calibration and validation of other instruments used in precipitation research, including scanning radars and active and passive satellite-borne sensors. A vertically directed profiler is capable of resolving the vertical structure of precipitating cloud systems that pass overhead. Standard profiler measurements include reflectivity, reflectivity-weighted Doppler velocity, and spectral width. This paper presents profiler observations of precipitating cloud systems observed during Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Ground Validation field campaigns. The observations show similarities and differences between convective systems observed in Florida; Brazil; and Kwajalein, Republic of the Marshall Islands. In addition, it is shown how a profiler can be calibrated using a collocated Joss–Waldvogel disdrometer, how the profiler can then be used to calibrate a scanning radar, and how the profiler may be used to retrieve drop size distributions.

Abstract

Comparisons of data taken by collocated Doppler wind profilers using 100-, 500-, and 1000-m pulse lengths show that the velocity profiles obtained with the longer pulses are displaced in height from contemporaneous profiles measured with the shorter pulses. These differences are larger than can be expected from random measurement errors. In addition, there is evidence that the 500-m pulse may underestimate the wind speed when compared with the 100-m pulse.

The standard radar equation does not adequately account for the conditions under which observations are made. In particular, it assumes that atmospheric reflectivity is constant throughout the pulse volume and that observations can be assigned to the peak of the range-weighting function. However, observations from several tropical profilers show that reflectivity gradients with magnitudes greater than 10 dB km⁻¹ are common. Here, a more general radar equation is used to simulate the radar response to the atmosphere. The simulation shows that atmospheric reflectivity gradients cause errors in the range placement. Observed reflectivity gradients can be used to calculate a correction to the range location of the observations that helps to reduce these errors.

Examples of these errors and the application of the correction to selected cases are shown. The evidence presented shows that reflectivity gradients are the main cause of the pervasive differences observed between the different radar observations.

Abstract

A 3-GHz profiler has been developed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Aeronomy Laboratory to observe the evolution and vertical structure of precipitating cloud systems. The profiler is very portable, robust, and relatively inexpensive, so that continuous, unattended observations of overhead precipitation can be obtained, even at remote locations. The new profiler is a vertically looking Doppler radar that operates at S band, a commonly used band for scanning weather radars (e.g., WSR-88D). The profiler has many features in common with the 915-MHz profiler developed at the Aeronomy Laboratory during the past decade primarily for measurement of lower-tropospheric winds in the Tropics. This paper presents a description of the new profiler and evaluates it in the field in Illinois and Australia in comparison with UHF lower-tropospheric profilers. In Illinois, the new profiler was evaluated alongside a collocated 915-MHz profiler at the Flatland Atmospheric Observatory. In Australia it was evaluated alongside a 920-MHz profiler during the Maritime Continent Thunderstorm Experiment. The results from these campaigns confirm the approximate 20-dB improvement in sensitivity, as expected for Rayleigh scatter. The results show that the new profiler provides a substantial improvement in the ability to observe deep cloud systems in comparison with the 915-MHz profilers.