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- Author or Editor: L-Y. Oey x
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Abstract
In contrast to the Loop Current and rings, much less is known about deep eddies (deeper than 1000 m) of the Gulf of Mexico. In this paper, results from a high-resolution numerical model of the Gulf are analyzed to explain their origin and how they excite topographic Rossby waves (TRWs) that disperse energy to the northern slopes of the Gulf. It is shown that north of Campeche Bank is a fertile ground for the growth of deep cyclones by baroclinic instability of the Loop Current. The cyclones have horizontal (vertical) scales of about 100 km (1000∼2000 m) and swirl speeds ∼0.3 m s−1. The subsequent development of these cyclones consists of two modes, A and B. Mode-A cyclones evolve into the relatively well-known frontal eddies that propagate around the Loop Current. Mode-A cyclone can amplify off the west Florida slope and cause the Loop Current to develop a “neck” that sometimes leads to shedding of a ring; this process is shown to be the Loop Current’s dominant mode of upper-to-deep variability. Mode-B cyclones are “shed” and propagate west-northwestward at speeds of about 2–6 km day−1, often in concert with an expanding loop or a migrating ring. TRWs are produced through wave–eddy coupling originating primarily from the cyclone birthplace as well as from the mode-B cyclones, and second, but for longer periods of 20∼30 days only, also from the mode-A frontal eddies. The waves are “channeled” onto the northern slope by a deep ridge located over the lower slope. For very short periods (≲10 days), the forcing is a short distance to the south, which suggests that the TRWs are locally forced by features that have intruded upslope and that most likely have accompanied the Loop Current or a ring.
Abstract
In contrast to the Loop Current and rings, much less is known about deep eddies (deeper than 1000 m) of the Gulf of Mexico. In this paper, results from a high-resolution numerical model of the Gulf are analyzed to explain their origin and how they excite topographic Rossby waves (TRWs) that disperse energy to the northern slopes of the Gulf. It is shown that north of Campeche Bank is a fertile ground for the growth of deep cyclones by baroclinic instability of the Loop Current. The cyclones have horizontal (vertical) scales of about 100 km (1000∼2000 m) and swirl speeds ∼0.3 m s−1. The subsequent development of these cyclones consists of two modes, A and B. Mode-A cyclones evolve into the relatively well-known frontal eddies that propagate around the Loop Current. Mode-A cyclone can amplify off the west Florida slope and cause the Loop Current to develop a “neck” that sometimes leads to shedding of a ring; this process is shown to be the Loop Current’s dominant mode of upper-to-deep variability. Mode-B cyclones are “shed” and propagate west-northwestward at speeds of about 2–6 km day−1, often in concert with an expanding loop or a migrating ring. TRWs are produced through wave–eddy coupling originating primarily from the cyclone birthplace as well as from the mode-B cyclones, and second, but for longer periods of 20∼30 days only, also from the mode-A frontal eddies. The waves are “channeled” onto the northern slope by a deep ridge located over the lower slope. For very short periods (≲10 days), the forcing is a short distance to the south, which suggests that the TRWs are locally forced by features that have intruded upslope and that most likely have accompanied the Loop Current or a ring.
Abstract
Air–sea coupling in the IntraAmerican seas (IAS; Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico) is studied through analyses of observational data from satellite, reanalysis products, and in situ measurements. A strong coupling is found between the easterly trade wind −U and meridional SST gradient ∂T/∂y across a localized region of the southern-central Caribbean Sea from seasonal and interannual to decadal time scales. The ∂T/∂y anomaly is caused by a variation in the strength of coastal upwelling off the Venezuelan coast by the wind, which in turn strengthens (weakens) for stronger (weaker) ∂T/∂y. Wind speeds and seasonal fluctuations in IAS have increased in the past two decades with a transition near 1994 coinciding approximately with when the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO) turned from cold to warm phases. In particular, the seasonal swing from summer's strong to fall's weak trade wind has become larger. The ocean's upper-layer depth has also deepened, by as much as 50% on average in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. These conditions favor the shedding of eddies from the Loop Current, making it more likely to shed at a biannual frequency, as has been observed from altimetry data.
Abstract
Air–sea coupling in the IntraAmerican seas (IAS; Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico) is studied through analyses of observational data from satellite, reanalysis products, and in situ measurements. A strong coupling is found between the easterly trade wind −U and meridional SST gradient ∂T/∂y across a localized region of the southern-central Caribbean Sea from seasonal and interannual to decadal time scales. The ∂T/∂y anomaly is caused by a variation in the strength of coastal upwelling off the Venezuelan coast by the wind, which in turn strengthens (weakens) for stronger (weaker) ∂T/∂y. Wind speeds and seasonal fluctuations in IAS have increased in the past two decades with a transition near 1994 coinciding approximately with when the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO) turned from cold to warm phases. In particular, the seasonal swing from summer's strong to fall's weak trade wind has become larger. The ocean's upper-layer depth has also deepened, by as much as 50% on average in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. These conditions favor the shedding of eddies from the Loop Current, making it more likely to shed at a biannual frequency, as has been observed from altimetry data.
Abstract
It is first shown that wind in the Gulf of Mexico can delay the shedding of Loop Current eddies. A time-dependent, three-dimensional numerical experiment forced by a spatially and temporally constant westward wind stress within the Gulf is analyzed and then is compared with an otherwise identical no-wind run, and the result is confirmed with reduced-gravity experiments. It is shown that the wind produces westward transports over the northern and southern shelves of the Gulf, convergence in the west, and a returned (i.e., eastward) upper-layer flow over the deep central basin toward the Loop Current. The theory from T. Pichevin and D. Nof is then used to explain that the returned flow constitutes a zonal momentum flux that delays eddy shedding. Mass-balance analysis shows that wind also forces larger Loop Current and rings (because the delayed shedding allows more mass to be accumulated in them) and produces more efficient mass exchange between the Gulf and the Caribbean Sea. It is shown that eddies alone (without wind stress curl) can force a boundary current and downward flow in the western Gulf and a corresponding deep flow from the western Gulf to the eastern Gulf.
Abstract
It is first shown that wind in the Gulf of Mexico can delay the shedding of Loop Current eddies. A time-dependent, three-dimensional numerical experiment forced by a spatially and temporally constant westward wind stress within the Gulf is analyzed and then is compared with an otherwise identical no-wind run, and the result is confirmed with reduced-gravity experiments. It is shown that the wind produces westward transports over the northern and southern shelves of the Gulf, convergence in the west, and a returned (i.e., eastward) upper-layer flow over the deep central basin toward the Loop Current. The theory from T. Pichevin and D. Nof is then used to explain that the returned flow constitutes a zonal momentum flux that delays eddy shedding. Mass-balance analysis shows that wind also forces larger Loop Current and rings (because the delayed shedding allows more mass to be accumulated in them) and produces more efficient mass exchange between the Gulf and the Caribbean Sea. It is shown that eddies alone (without wind stress curl) can force a boundary current and downward flow in the western Gulf and a corresponding deep flow from the western Gulf to the eastern Gulf.
Abstract
The North Pacific Subtropical Countercurrent (STCC) has a weak eastward velocity near the surface, but the region is populated with eddies. Studies have shown that the STCC is baroclinically unstable with a peak growth rate of 0.015 day−1 in March, and the ~60-day growth time has been used to explain the peak eddy kinetic energy (EKE) in May observed from satellites. It is argued here that this growth time from previously published normal-mode instability analyses is too slow. Growth rates calculated from an initial-value problem without the normal-mode assumption are found to be 1.5 to 2 times faster and at shorter wavelengths, due to the existence of (i) nonmodal solutions and (ii) sea surface temperature front in the mixed layer in winter. At interannual time scales it is shown that because of rapid surface adjustments, the STCC geostrophic shear, hence also the instability growth, is approximately in phase with surface forcing, leading to EKE modulation that peaks approximately 10 months later. However, the EKE can only be partially explained by this mechanism of modulation by baroclinic instability. It is suggested that the unexplained variance may be caused additionally by modulation of the EKE by dissipation.
Abstract
The North Pacific Subtropical Countercurrent (STCC) has a weak eastward velocity near the surface, but the region is populated with eddies. Studies have shown that the STCC is baroclinically unstable with a peak growth rate of 0.015 day−1 in March, and the ~60-day growth time has been used to explain the peak eddy kinetic energy (EKE) in May observed from satellites. It is argued here that this growth time from previously published normal-mode instability analyses is too slow. Growth rates calculated from an initial-value problem without the normal-mode assumption are found to be 1.5 to 2 times faster and at shorter wavelengths, due to the existence of (i) nonmodal solutions and (ii) sea surface temperature front in the mixed layer in winter. At interannual time scales it is shown that because of rapid surface adjustments, the STCC geostrophic shear, hence also the instability growth, is approximately in phase with surface forcing, leading to EKE modulation that peaks approximately 10 months later. However, the EKE can only be partially explained by this mechanism of modulation by baroclinic instability. It is suggested that the unexplained variance may be caused additionally by modulation of the EKE by dissipation.
Abstract
Although the upper-layer dynamics of the Loop Current and eddies in the Gulf of Mexico are well studied, the understanding of how they are coupled to the deep flows is limited. In this work, results from a numerical model are analyzed to classify the expansion, shedding, retraction, and deep-coupling cycle (the Loop Current cycle) according to the vertical mass flux across the base of the Loop. Stage A is the “Loop reforming” period, with downward flux and deep divergence under the Loop Current. Stage B is the “incipient shedding,” with strong upward flux and deep convergence. Stage C is the “eddy migration,” with waning upward flux and deep throughflow from the western Gulf into the Yucatan Channel. Because of the strong deep coupling between the eastern and western Gulf, the Loop’s expansion is poorly correlated with deep flows through the Yucatan Channel. Stage A is longest and the mean vertical flux under the Loop Current is downward. Therefore, because the net circulation around the abyssal basin is zero, the abyssal gyre in the western Gulf is cyclonic. The gyre’s strength is strongest when the Loop Current is reforming and weakest after an eddy is shed. The result suggests that the Loop Current cycle can force a low-frequency [time scales ∼ shedding periods; O(months)] abyssal oscillation in the Gulf of Mexico.
Abstract
Although the upper-layer dynamics of the Loop Current and eddies in the Gulf of Mexico are well studied, the understanding of how they are coupled to the deep flows is limited. In this work, results from a numerical model are analyzed to classify the expansion, shedding, retraction, and deep-coupling cycle (the Loop Current cycle) according to the vertical mass flux across the base of the Loop. Stage A is the “Loop reforming” period, with downward flux and deep divergence under the Loop Current. Stage B is the “incipient shedding,” with strong upward flux and deep convergence. Stage C is the “eddy migration,” with waning upward flux and deep throughflow from the western Gulf into the Yucatan Channel. Because of the strong deep coupling between the eastern and western Gulf, the Loop’s expansion is poorly correlated with deep flows through the Yucatan Channel. Stage A is longest and the mean vertical flux under the Loop Current is downward. Therefore, because the net circulation around the abyssal basin is zero, the abyssal gyre in the western Gulf is cyclonic. The gyre’s strength is strongest when the Loop Current is reforming and weakest after an eddy is shed. The result suggests that the Loop Current cycle can force a low-frequency [time scales ∼ shedding periods; O(months)] abyssal oscillation in the Gulf of Mexico.
Abstract
Tide gauge and satellite data reveal an interannual oscillation of the ocean’s thermoclines east of the Philippines and Taiwan, forced by a corresponding oscillation in the wind stress curl. This so-called Philippines–Taiwan Oscillation (PTO) is shown to control the interannual variability of the circulation of the subtropical and tropical western North Pacific. The PTO shares some characteristics of known Pacific indices, for example, Niño-3.4. However, unlike PTO, these other indices explain only portions of the western North Pacific circulation. The reason is because of the nonlinear nature of the forcing in which mesoscale (ocean) eddies play a crucial role. In years of positive PTO, the thermocline east of the Philippines rises while east of Taiwan it deepens. This results in a northward shift of the North Equatorial Current (NEC), increased vertical shear of the Subtropical Countercurrent (STCC)/NEC system, increased eddy activity dominated by warm eddies in the STCC, increased Kuroshio transport off the northeastern coast of Taiwan into the East China Sea, increased westward inflow through Luzon Strait into the South China Sea, and cyclonic circulation and low sea surface height anomalies in the South China Sea. The reverse applies in years of negative PTO.
Abstract
Tide gauge and satellite data reveal an interannual oscillation of the ocean’s thermoclines east of the Philippines and Taiwan, forced by a corresponding oscillation in the wind stress curl. This so-called Philippines–Taiwan Oscillation (PTO) is shown to control the interannual variability of the circulation of the subtropical and tropical western North Pacific. The PTO shares some characteristics of known Pacific indices, for example, Niño-3.4. However, unlike PTO, these other indices explain only portions of the western North Pacific circulation. The reason is because of the nonlinear nature of the forcing in which mesoscale (ocean) eddies play a crucial role. In years of positive PTO, the thermocline east of the Philippines rises while east of Taiwan it deepens. This results in a northward shift of the North Equatorial Current (NEC), increased vertical shear of the Subtropical Countercurrent (STCC)/NEC system, increased eddy activity dominated by warm eddies in the STCC, increased Kuroshio transport off the northeastern coast of Taiwan into the East China Sea, increased westward inflow through Luzon Strait into the South China Sea, and cyclonic circulation and low sea surface height anomalies in the South China Sea. The reverse applies in years of negative PTO.
Abstract
The Gulf of Mexico (GOM) receives heat from the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan–Loop Current (LC) system, and the corresponding ocean heat content (OHC) is important to weather and climate of the continental United States. However, the mechanisms that affect this heat influx and how it is distributed in the Gulf have not been studied. Using the Princeton Ocean Model, the authors show that a steady, uniform westward wind in the Gulf increases (∼100 KJ cm−2) the upper OHC (temperature T > 18°C) of the Gulf. This is because wind increases the water exchange between the Gulf and the Caribbean Sea, and the heat input into the Gulf is also increased, by about 50 TW. The westward heat transport to the western Gulf is ∼30 TW, and a substantial portion of this is due to wind-induced shelf currents, which converge to produce downwelling near the western coast. Finally, eddies are effective transporters of heat across the central Gulf. Wind forces larger LC and rings with deeper isotherms. This and downfront-wind mixing on the southern side of anticyclonic rings, northward spread of near-zero potential vorticity waters, and downwelling on the northern shelf break result in wide and deep eddies that transport large OHCs across the Gulf.
Abstract
The Gulf of Mexico (GOM) receives heat from the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan–Loop Current (LC) system, and the corresponding ocean heat content (OHC) is important to weather and climate of the continental United States. However, the mechanisms that affect this heat influx and how it is distributed in the Gulf have not been studied. Using the Princeton Ocean Model, the authors show that a steady, uniform westward wind in the Gulf increases (∼100 KJ cm−2) the upper OHC (temperature T > 18°C) of the Gulf. This is because wind increases the water exchange between the Gulf and the Caribbean Sea, and the heat input into the Gulf is also increased, by about 50 TW. The westward heat transport to the western Gulf is ∼30 TW, and a substantial portion of this is due to wind-induced shelf currents, which converge to produce downwelling near the western coast. Finally, eddies are effective transporters of heat across the central Gulf. Wind forces larger LC and rings with deeper isotherms. This and downfront-wind mixing on the southern side of anticyclonic rings, northward spread of near-zero potential vorticity waters, and downwelling on the northern shelf break result in wide and deep eddies that transport large OHCs across the Gulf.
Abstract
Observations suggest the hypothesis that deep eddy kinetic energy (EKE) in the Gulf of Mexico can be accounted for by topographic Rossby waves (TRWs). It is presumed that the TRWs are forced by Loop Current (LC) pulsation, Loop Current eddy (LCE) shedding, and perhaps also by LCE itself. Although the hypothesis is supported by model results, such as those presented in Oey, the existence of TRWs in the model and how they can be forced by larger-scale LC and LCEs with longer-period vacillations have not been clarified. In this paper, results from a 10-yr simulation of LC and LCEs, with double the resolution of that used by Oey, are analyzed to isolate the TRWs. It is shown that along an east-to-west band across the gulf, approximately over the 3000-m isobath, significant EKE that accounts for over one-half of the total spectrum is contained in the 20–100-day periods. Bottom energy intensification exists in this east–west band with vertical decay scales of about 600–300 m decreasing westward. The decrease agrees with the TRW solution. The band is also located within the region where TRWs can be supported by the topographic slope and stratification used in the model and where wavenumber and frequency estimates are consistent with the TRW dispersion relation. The analysis indicates significant correlation between pairs of east–west stations, over distances of approximately 400 km. Contours of lag times suggest offshore (i.e., downslope) phase propagation, and thus the east–west band indicates nearly parabathic and upslope energy propagation. Ray tracing utilizing the TRW dispersion relation and with and without (for periods >43 days) ambient deep currents shows that TRW energy paths coincide with the above east–west high-energy band. It also explains that the band is a result of TRW refraction by an escarpment (with increased topographic gradient) across the central gulf north of the 3000-m isobath, and also by deep current and its cyclonic shear, and that ray convergence results in localized EKE maxima near 91°W and 94°–95°W. Escarpment and cyclonic current shear also shorten TRW wavelengths. Westward deep currents increase TRW group speeds, by about 2–3 km day−1 according to the model, and this and ray confinement by current shear may impose sufficient constraints to aid in inferring deep flows. Model results and ray paths suggest that the deep EKE east of about the 91°W originates from under the LC while farther west the EKE also originates from southwestward propagating LCEs. The near-bottom current fluctuations at these source regions derive their energy from short-period (<100 days) and short-wavelength (<200 km) near-surface fluctuations that propagate around the LC during its northward extrusion phase and also around LCEs as they migrate southwestward in the model.
Abstract
Observations suggest the hypothesis that deep eddy kinetic energy (EKE) in the Gulf of Mexico can be accounted for by topographic Rossby waves (TRWs). It is presumed that the TRWs are forced by Loop Current (LC) pulsation, Loop Current eddy (LCE) shedding, and perhaps also by LCE itself. Although the hypothesis is supported by model results, such as those presented in Oey, the existence of TRWs in the model and how they can be forced by larger-scale LC and LCEs with longer-period vacillations have not been clarified. In this paper, results from a 10-yr simulation of LC and LCEs, with double the resolution of that used by Oey, are analyzed to isolate the TRWs. It is shown that along an east-to-west band across the gulf, approximately over the 3000-m isobath, significant EKE that accounts for over one-half of the total spectrum is contained in the 20–100-day periods. Bottom energy intensification exists in this east–west band with vertical decay scales of about 600–300 m decreasing westward. The decrease agrees with the TRW solution. The band is also located within the region where TRWs can be supported by the topographic slope and stratification used in the model and where wavenumber and frequency estimates are consistent with the TRW dispersion relation. The analysis indicates significant correlation between pairs of east–west stations, over distances of approximately 400 km. Contours of lag times suggest offshore (i.e., downslope) phase propagation, and thus the east–west band indicates nearly parabathic and upslope energy propagation. Ray tracing utilizing the TRW dispersion relation and with and without (for periods >43 days) ambient deep currents shows that TRW energy paths coincide with the above east–west high-energy band. It also explains that the band is a result of TRW refraction by an escarpment (with increased topographic gradient) across the central gulf north of the 3000-m isobath, and also by deep current and its cyclonic shear, and that ray convergence results in localized EKE maxima near 91°W and 94°–95°W. Escarpment and cyclonic current shear also shorten TRW wavelengths. Westward deep currents increase TRW group speeds, by about 2–3 km day−1 according to the model, and this and ray confinement by current shear may impose sufficient constraints to aid in inferring deep flows. Model results and ray paths suggest that the deep EKE east of about the 91°W originates from under the LC while farther west the EKE also originates from southwestward propagating LCEs. The near-bottom current fluctuations at these source regions derive their energy from short-period (<100 days) and short-wavelength (<200 km) near-surface fluctuations that propagate around the LC during its northward extrusion phase and also around LCEs as they migrate southwestward in the model.
Abstract
It is quite widely accepted that the along-shelf pressure gradient (ASPG) contributes in driving shelf currents in the Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB) off the northeastern U.S. coast; its origin, however, remains a subject for debate. Based on analyses of 16 yr (1993–2008) of satellite, tide gauge, river, and wind data and numerical experiments, the authors suggest that river and Coastal Labrador Sea Water (CLSW) transport contribute to a positive mean ASPG (tilt up northward) in the ratio of approximately 1:7 (i.e., CLSW dominates), whereas wind and the Gulf Stream tend to produce a negative mean ASPG in the ratio of approximately 1:6.
Data also indicate seasonal and interannual variations of ASPG that correlate with the Gulf Stream’s shift and eddy kinetic energy north of the Gulf Stream (N-EKE) due to warm-core rings. A southward shift in the Gulf Stream produces a sea level drop north of Cape Hatteras, which is most rapid in winter. The N-EKE peaks in late spring to early summer and is larger in some years than others. A process model is used to show that ring propagation along the MAB slope and ring impingement upon the shelf break north of Cape Hatteras generate along-isobath density gradients and cross-shelfbreak transports that produce sea level change on the shelf; the dominant ageostrophic term in the depth-integrated vorticity balance is the joint effect of baroclinicity and relief (JEBAR) term. In particular, the shelf’s sea surface slopes down to the north when rings approach Cape Hatteras.
Abstract
It is quite widely accepted that the along-shelf pressure gradient (ASPG) contributes in driving shelf currents in the Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB) off the northeastern U.S. coast; its origin, however, remains a subject for debate. Based on analyses of 16 yr (1993–2008) of satellite, tide gauge, river, and wind data and numerical experiments, the authors suggest that river and Coastal Labrador Sea Water (CLSW) transport contribute to a positive mean ASPG (tilt up northward) in the ratio of approximately 1:7 (i.e., CLSW dominates), whereas wind and the Gulf Stream tend to produce a negative mean ASPG in the ratio of approximately 1:6.
Data also indicate seasonal and interannual variations of ASPG that correlate with the Gulf Stream’s shift and eddy kinetic energy north of the Gulf Stream (N-EKE) due to warm-core rings. A southward shift in the Gulf Stream produces a sea level drop north of Cape Hatteras, which is most rapid in winter. The N-EKE peaks in late spring to early summer and is larger in some years than others. A process model is used to show that ring propagation along the MAB slope and ring impingement upon the shelf break north of Cape Hatteras generate along-isobath density gradients and cross-shelfbreak transports that produce sea level change on the shelf; the dominant ageostrophic term in the depth-integrated vorticity balance is the joint effect of baroclinicity and relief (JEBAR) term. In particular, the shelf’s sea surface slopes down to the north when rings approach Cape Hatteras.
