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- Author or Editor: M. Khairoutdinov x
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Abstract
A large-domain large-eddy simulation of a tropical deep convection system is used as a benchmark to derive and test a mixed subgrid-scale (SGS) scheme for scalar and momentum fluxes in cloud-resolving models (CRMs). The benchmark simulation resolves a broad range of scales ranging from mesoscale organizations, through gravity waves and individual clouds, down to energy-containing turbulent eddies. A spectral analysis shows that the vertical-velocity kinetic energy peaks at scales from hundreds of meters in the lower cloud layer to several kilometers higher up; these scales are typical grid sizes of today’s CRMs. The analysis also shows that a significant portion of the scalar and momentum fluxes in the benchmark simulation are carried by motions smaller than several kilometers (i.e., smaller than a typical grid resolution of CRMs). The broad range of scales of the benchmark simulation is split into two components: filter scale (mimicking CRM resolvable scale) and subfilter scale (mimicking CRM SGS), using filter widths characteristic of a typical CRM grid spacing. The local relationship of the subfilter-scale fluxes to the filter-scale variables is examined. This leads to a mixed SGS scheme to represent the SGS fluxes of scalars and momentum in CRMs. A priori tests show that the mixed SGS scheme yields spatial distributions of subfilter-scale fluxes that correlate much better with those retrieved from the benchmark when compared with an eddy viscosity/diffusivity scheme that is commonly used in today’s CRMs.
Abstract
A large-domain large-eddy simulation of a tropical deep convection system is used as a benchmark to derive and test a mixed subgrid-scale (SGS) scheme for scalar and momentum fluxes in cloud-resolving models (CRMs). The benchmark simulation resolves a broad range of scales ranging from mesoscale organizations, through gravity waves and individual clouds, down to energy-containing turbulent eddies. A spectral analysis shows that the vertical-velocity kinetic energy peaks at scales from hundreds of meters in the lower cloud layer to several kilometers higher up; these scales are typical grid sizes of today’s CRMs. The analysis also shows that a significant portion of the scalar and momentum fluxes in the benchmark simulation are carried by motions smaller than several kilometers (i.e., smaller than a typical grid resolution of CRMs). The broad range of scales of the benchmark simulation is split into two components: filter scale (mimicking CRM resolvable scale) and subfilter scale (mimicking CRM SGS), using filter widths characteristic of a typical CRM grid spacing. The local relationship of the subfilter-scale fluxes to the filter-scale variables is examined. This leads to a mixed SGS scheme to represent the SGS fluxes of scalars and momentum in CRMs. A priori tests show that the mixed SGS scheme yields spatial distributions of subfilter-scale fluxes that correlate much better with those retrieved from the benchmark when compared with an eddy viscosity/diffusivity scheme that is commonly used in today’s CRMs.
Abstract
A new large eddy simulation (LES) stratocumulus cloud model with an explicit formulation of micro-physical processes has been developed, and the results from three large eddy simulations are presented to illustrate the effects of the stratocumulus-topped boundary layer (STBL) dynamics on cloud microphysical parameters. The simulations represent cases of a well-mixed and a radiatively driven STBL. Two of the simulations differ only in the ambient aerosol concentration and show its effect on cloud microphysics. The third simulation is based on the data obtained by Nicholls, and the simulation results from this case are contrasted with his measurements. Cloud-layer dynamical parameters and cloud droplet spectra are in reasonably good agreement with observations.
As demonstrated by the results of three large eddy simulations presented in the paper, the cloud microphysical parameters are significantly affected by cloud dynamics. This is evidenced by the sensitivity of the cloud drop spectra itself, as well as by that of the integral parameters of the spectra, such as mean radii and droplet concentration. Experiments presented here also show that cloud microstructure is significantly asymmetric between updrafts and downdrafts. Mixing with dry air from the inversion may significantly enhance evaporation and result in cloud-free zones within the cloud. As a result of mixing, the cloud layer is very inhomogeneous, especially near its top and bottom.
The authors analyze in detail the fine structure of the supersaturation field and suggest an explanation for the formation of the model-predicted supersaturation peak near the cloud top. The LES results suggest that super-saturation may have a sharp increase in near-saturated parcels that undergo forced vertical displacement at the cloud-layer top. The main forcing mechanism that may supply the additional energy for the forced convection in the case presented is from propagating gravity waves. Although radiative cooling may also result in increased convective activity at cloud top, the sensitivity tests presented here suggest that, at least in these simulations, this effect is not dominant.
Abstract
A new large eddy simulation (LES) stratocumulus cloud model with an explicit formulation of micro-physical processes has been developed, and the results from three large eddy simulations are presented to illustrate the effects of the stratocumulus-topped boundary layer (STBL) dynamics on cloud microphysical parameters. The simulations represent cases of a well-mixed and a radiatively driven STBL. Two of the simulations differ only in the ambient aerosol concentration and show its effect on cloud microphysics. The third simulation is based on the data obtained by Nicholls, and the simulation results from this case are contrasted with his measurements. Cloud-layer dynamical parameters and cloud droplet spectra are in reasonably good agreement with observations.
As demonstrated by the results of three large eddy simulations presented in the paper, the cloud microphysical parameters are significantly affected by cloud dynamics. This is evidenced by the sensitivity of the cloud drop spectra itself, as well as by that of the integral parameters of the spectra, such as mean radii and droplet concentration. Experiments presented here also show that cloud microstructure is significantly asymmetric between updrafts and downdrafts. Mixing with dry air from the inversion may significantly enhance evaporation and result in cloud-free zones within the cloud. As a result of mixing, the cloud layer is very inhomogeneous, especially near its top and bottom.
The authors analyze in detail the fine structure of the supersaturation field and suggest an explanation for the formation of the model-predicted supersaturation peak near the cloud top. The LES results suggest that super-saturation may have a sharp increase in near-saturated parcels that undergo forced vertical displacement at the cloud-layer top. The main forcing mechanism that may supply the additional energy for the forced convection in the case presented is from propagating gravity waves. Although radiative cooling may also result in increased convective activity at cloud top, the sensitivity tests presented here suggest that, at least in these simulations, this effect is not dominant.
Abstract
An analysis of a 5-yr (from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2013) free run of the superparameterized (SP) Climate Forecast System (CFS) version 2 (CFSv2) (SP-CFS), implemented for the first time at a spectral triangular truncation at wavenumber 62 (T62) atmospheric horizontal resolution, is presented. The SP-CFS simulations are evaluated against observations and traditional convection parameterized CFSv2 simulations at T62 resolution as well as at some higher resolutions. The metrics for evaluating the model performance are chosen in order to mainly address the improvement in systematic biases observed in the CFSv2 documented in earlier studies. While the primary focus of this work is on evaluating the improvement of the simulation of the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) by the SP-CFS model, some results are also presented within the context of the global climate. The SP-CFS significantly reduces the dry bias of precipitation over the Indian subcontinent and better captures the monsoon intraseasonal oscillation (MISO) modes. SP-CFS also improves the northward and eastward propagation of high- and low-frequency modes of ISM. Compared to CFSv2, the SP-CFS model simulates improved convectively coupled equatorial waves; better temperature structures both spatially and vertically, leading to a significantly improved relative distribution of variance for the synoptic disturbances and low-frequency tropical intraseasonal oscillations (ISOs). This analysis of the development of SP-CFS is particularly important as it shows promise for improving the cloud process representation through an SP framework and is able to improve the mean as well as intraseasonal characteristics of CFSv2 within the context of the ISM.
Abstract
An analysis of a 5-yr (from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2013) free run of the superparameterized (SP) Climate Forecast System (CFS) version 2 (CFSv2) (SP-CFS), implemented for the first time at a spectral triangular truncation at wavenumber 62 (T62) atmospheric horizontal resolution, is presented. The SP-CFS simulations are evaluated against observations and traditional convection parameterized CFSv2 simulations at T62 resolution as well as at some higher resolutions. The metrics for evaluating the model performance are chosen in order to mainly address the improvement in systematic biases observed in the CFSv2 documented in earlier studies. While the primary focus of this work is on evaluating the improvement of the simulation of the Indian summer monsoon (ISM) by the SP-CFS model, some results are also presented within the context of the global climate. The SP-CFS significantly reduces the dry bias of precipitation over the Indian subcontinent and better captures the monsoon intraseasonal oscillation (MISO) modes. SP-CFS also improves the northward and eastward propagation of high- and low-frequency modes of ISM. Compared to CFSv2, the SP-CFS model simulates improved convectively coupled equatorial waves; better temperature structures both spatially and vertically, leading to a significantly improved relative distribution of variance for the synoptic disturbances and low-frequency tropical intraseasonal oscillations (ISOs). This analysis of the development of SP-CFS is particularly important as it shows promise for improving the cloud process representation through an SP framework and is able to improve the mean as well as intraseasonal characteristics of CFSv2 within the context of the ISM.
This paper reports an intercomparison study of a stratocumulus-topped planetary boundary layer (PBL) generated from ten 3D large eddy simulation (LES) codes and four 2D cloud-resolving models (CRMs). These models vary in the numerics, the parameterizations of the subgrid-scale (SGS) turbulence and condensation processes, and the calculation of longwave radiative cooling. Cloud-top radiative cooling is often the major source of buoyant production of turbulent kinetic energy in the stratocumulus-topped PBL. An idealized nocturnal stratocumulus case was selected for this study. It featured a statistically horizontally homogeneous and nearly solid cloud deck with no drizzle, no solar radiation, little wind shear, and little surface heating.
Results of the two-hour simulations showed that the overall cloud structure, including cloud-top height, cloud fraction, and the vertical distributions of many turbulence statistics, compared well among all LESs despite the code variations. However, the entrainment rate was found to differ significantly among the simulations. Among the model uncertainties due to numerics, SGS turbulence, SGS condensation, and radiation, none could be identified to explain such differences. Therefore, a follow-up study will focus on simulating the entrainment process. The liquid water mixing ratio profiles also varied significantly among the simulations; these profiles are sensitive to the algorithm used for computing the saturation mixing ratio.
Despite the obvious differences in eddy structure in two- and three-dimensional simulations, the cloud structure predicted by the 2D CRMs was similar to that obtained by the 3D LESs, even though the momentum fluxes, the vertical and horizontal velocity variances, and the turbulence kinetic energy profiles predicted by the 2D CRMs all differ significantly from those of the LESs.
This paper reports an intercomparison study of a stratocumulus-topped planetary boundary layer (PBL) generated from ten 3D large eddy simulation (LES) codes and four 2D cloud-resolving models (CRMs). These models vary in the numerics, the parameterizations of the subgrid-scale (SGS) turbulence and condensation processes, and the calculation of longwave radiative cooling. Cloud-top radiative cooling is often the major source of buoyant production of turbulent kinetic energy in the stratocumulus-topped PBL. An idealized nocturnal stratocumulus case was selected for this study. It featured a statistically horizontally homogeneous and nearly solid cloud deck with no drizzle, no solar radiation, little wind shear, and little surface heating.
Results of the two-hour simulations showed that the overall cloud structure, including cloud-top height, cloud fraction, and the vertical distributions of many turbulence statistics, compared well among all LESs despite the code variations. However, the entrainment rate was found to differ significantly among the simulations. Among the model uncertainties due to numerics, SGS turbulence, SGS condensation, and radiation, none could be identified to explain such differences. Therefore, a follow-up study will focus on simulating the entrainment process. The liquid water mixing ratio profiles also varied significantly among the simulations; these profiles are sensitive to the algorithm used for computing the saturation mixing ratio.
Despite the obvious differences in eddy structure in two- and three-dimensional simulations, the cloud structure predicted by the 2D CRMs was similar to that obtained by the 3D LESs, even though the momentum fluxes, the vertical and horizontal velocity variances, and the turbulence kinetic energy profiles predicted by the 2D CRMs all differ significantly from those of the LESs.
Abstract
The ability of eight climate models to simulate the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is examined using diagnostics developed by the U.S. Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) MJO Working Group. Although the MJO signal has been extracted throughout the annual cycle, this study focuses on the boreal winter (November–April) behavior. Initially, maps of the mean state and variance and equatorial space–time spectra of 850-hPa zonal wind and precipitation are compared with observations. Models best represent the intraseasonal space–time spectral peak in the zonal wind compared to that of precipitation. Using the phase–space representation of the multivariate principal components (PCs), the life cycle properties of the simulated MJOs are extracted, including the ability to represent how the MJO evolves from a given subphase and the associated decay time scales. On average, the MJO decay (e-folding) time scale for all models is shorter (∼20–29 days) than observations (∼31 days). All models are able to produce a leading pair of multivariate principal components that represents eastward propagation of intraseasonal wind and precipitation anomalies, although the fraction of the variance is smaller than observed for all models. In some cases, the dominant time scale of these PCs is outside of the 30–80-day band.
Several key variables associated with the model’s MJO are investigated, including the surface latent heat flux, boundary layer (925 hPa) moisture convergence, and the vertical structure of moisture. Low-level moisture convergence ahead (east) of convection is associated with eastward propagation in most of the models. A few models are also able to simulate the gradual moistening of the lower troposphere that precedes observed MJO convection, as well as the observed geographical difference in the vertical structure of moisture associated with the MJO. The dependence of rainfall on lower tropospheric relative humidity and the fraction of rainfall that is stratiform are also discussed, including implications these diagnostics have for MJO simulation. Based on having the most realistic intraseasonal multivariate empirical orthogonal functions, principal component power spectra, equatorial eastward propagating outgoing longwave radiation (OLR), latent heat flux, low-level moisture convergence signals, and vertical structure of moisture over the Eastern Hemisphere, the superparameterized Community Atmosphere Model (SPCAM) and the ECHAM4/Ocean Isopycnal Model (OPYC) show the best skill at representing the MJO.
Abstract
The ability of eight climate models to simulate the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is examined using diagnostics developed by the U.S. Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) MJO Working Group. Although the MJO signal has been extracted throughout the annual cycle, this study focuses on the boreal winter (November–April) behavior. Initially, maps of the mean state and variance and equatorial space–time spectra of 850-hPa zonal wind and precipitation are compared with observations. Models best represent the intraseasonal space–time spectral peak in the zonal wind compared to that of precipitation. Using the phase–space representation of the multivariate principal components (PCs), the life cycle properties of the simulated MJOs are extracted, including the ability to represent how the MJO evolves from a given subphase and the associated decay time scales. On average, the MJO decay (e-folding) time scale for all models is shorter (∼20–29 days) than observations (∼31 days). All models are able to produce a leading pair of multivariate principal components that represents eastward propagation of intraseasonal wind and precipitation anomalies, although the fraction of the variance is smaller than observed for all models. In some cases, the dominant time scale of these PCs is outside of the 30–80-day band.
Several key variables associated with the model’s MJO are investigated, including the surface latent heat flux, boundary layer (925 hPa) moisture convergence, and the vertical structure of moisture. Low-level moisture convergence ahead (east) of convection is associated with eastward propagation in most of the models. A few models are also able to simulate the gradual moistening of the lower troposphere that precedes observed MJO convection, as well as the observed geographical difference in the vertical structure of moisture associated with the MJO. The dependence of rainfall on lower tropospheric relative humidity and the fraction of rainfall that is stratiform are also discussed, including implications these diagnostics have for MJO simulation. Based on having the most realistic intraseasonal multivariate empirical orthogonal functions, principal component power spectra, equatorial eastward propagating outgoing longwave radiation (OLR), latent heat flux, low-level moisture convergence signals, and vertical structure of moisture over the Eastern Hemisphere, the superparameterized Community Atmosphere Model (SPCAM) and the ECHAM4/Ocean Isopycnal Model (OPYC) show the best skill at representing the MJO.
