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- Author or Editor: Michael Rawlins x
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Abstract
Daily synoptic observations were examined to determine the critical air temperatures and dewpoints that separate solid versus liquid precipitation for the fall and spring seasons at 547 stations over northern Eurasia. The authors found that critical air temperatures are highly geographically dependent, ranging from −1.0° to 2.5°C, with the majority of stations over European Russia ranging from 0.5° to 1.0°C and those over south-central Siberia ranging from 1.5° to 2.5°C. The fall season has a 0.5°–1.0°C lower value than the spring season at 42% stations. Relative humidity, elevation, the station's air pressure, and climate regime were found to have varying degrees of influences on the distribution of critical air temperature, although the relationships are very complex and cannot be formulated into a simple rule that can be applied universally. Although the critical dewpoint temperatures have a spread of −1.5° to 1.5°C, 92% of stations have critical values of 0.5°–1.0°C. The critical dewpoint is less dependent on environmental factors and seasons. A combination of three critical dewpoints and three air temperatures is developed for each station for spring and fall separately that has improved snow event predictability when the dewpoint is in the range of −0.5°–1.5°C and has improved rainfall event predictability when the dewpoint is higher than or equal to 0°C based on the statistics of all 537 stations. Results suggest that application of site-specific critical values of air temperature and dewpoint to discriminate between solid and liquid precipitation is needed to improve snow and hydrological modeling at local and regional scales.
Abstract
Daily synoptic observations were examined to determine the critical air temperatures and dewpoints that separate solid versus liquid precipitation for the fall and spring seasons at 547 stations over northern Eurasia. The authors found that critical air temperatures are highly geographically dependent, ranging from −1.0° to 2.5°C, with the majority of stations over European Russia ranging from 0.5° to 1.0°C and those over south-central Siberia ranging from 1.5° to 2.5°C. The fall season has a 0.5°–1.0°C lower value than the spring season at 42% stations. Relative humidity, elevation, the station's air pressure, and climate regime were found to have varying degrees of influences on the distribution of critical air temperature, although the relationships are very complex and cannot be formulated into a simple rule that can be applied universally. Although the critical dewpoint temperatures have a spread of −1.5° to 1.5°C, 92% of stations have critical values of 0.5°–1.0°C. The critical dewpoint is less dependent on environmental factors and seasons. A combination of three critical dewpoints and three air temperatures is developed for each station for spring and fall separately that has improved snow event predictability when the dewpoint is in the range of −0.5°–1.5°C and has improved rainfall event predictability when the dewpoint is higher than or equal to 0°C based on the statistics of all 537 stations. Results suggest that application of site-specific critical values of air temperature and dewpoint to discriminate between solid and liquid precipitation is needed to improve snow and hydrological modeling at local and regional scales.
Abstract
This study used air temperatures from a suite of regional climate models participating in the North American Climate Change Assessment Program (NARCCAP) together with two atmospheric reanalysis datasets to investigate changes in freezing days (defined as days with daily average temperature below freezing) likely to occur between 30-yr baseline (1971–2000) and midcentury (2041–70) periods across most of North America. Changes in NARCCAP ensemble mean winter temperature show a strong gradient with latitude, with warming of over 4°C near Hudson Bay. The decline in freezing days ranges from less than 10 days across north-central Canada to nearly 90 days in the warmest areas of the continent that currently undergo seasonally freezing conditions. The area experiencing freezing days contracts by 0.9–1.0 × 106 km2 (5.7%–6.4% of the total area). Areas with mean annual temperature between 2° and 6°C and a relatively low rate of change in climatological daily temperatures (<0.2°C day−) near the time of spring thaw will encounter the greatest decreases in freezing days. Advances in the timing of spring thaw will exceed the delay in fall freeze across much of the United States, with the reverse pattern likely over most of Canada.
Abstract
This study used air temperatures from a suite of regional climate models participating in the North American Climate Change Assessment Program (NARCCAP) together with two atmospheric reanalysis datasets to investigate changes in freezing days (defined as days with daily average temperature below freezing) likely to occur between 30-yr baseline (1971–2000) and midcentury (2041–70) periods across most of North America. Changes in NARCCAP ensemble mean winter temperature show a strong gradient with latitude, with warming of over 4°C near Hudson Bay. The decline in freezing days ranges from less than 10 days across north-central Canada to nearly 90 days in the warmest areas of the continent that currently undergo seasonally freezing conditions. The area experiencing freezing days contracts by 0.9–1.0 × 106 km2 (5.7%–6.4% of the total area). Areas with mean annual temperature between 2° and 6°C and a relatively low rate of change in climatological daily temperatures (<0.2°C day−) near the time of spring thaw will encounter the greatest decreases in freezing days. Advances in the timing of spring thaw will exceed the delay in fall freeze across much of the United States, with the reverse pattern likely over most of Canada.
Abstract
Hydrologic cycle intensification is an expected manifestation of a warming climate. Although positive trends in several global average quantities have been reported, no previous studies have documented broad intensification across elements of the Arctic freshwater cycle (FWC). In this study, the authors examine the character and quantitative significance of changes in annual precipitation, evapotranspiration, and river discharge across the terrestrial pan-Arctic over the past several decades from observations and a suite of coupled general circulation models (GCMs). Trends in freshwater flux and storage derived from observations across the Arctic Ocean and surrounding seas are also described.
With few exceptions, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and river discharge fluxes from observations and the GCMs exhibit positive trends. Significant positive trends above the 90% confidence level, however, are not present for all of the observations. Greater confidence in the GCM trends arises through lower interannual variability relative to trend magnitude. Put another way, intrinsic variability in the observations tends to limit confidence in trend robustness. Ocean fluxes are less certain, primarily because of the lack of long-term observations. Where available, salinity and volume flux data suggest some decrease in saltwater inflow to the Barents Sea (i.e., a decrease in freshwater outflow) in recent decades. A decline in freshwater storage across the central Arctic Ocean and suggestions that large-scale circulation plays a dominant role in freshwater trends raise questions as to whether Arctic Ocean freshwater flows are intensifying. Although oceanic fluxes of freshwater are highly variable and consistent trends are difficult to verify, the other components of the Arctic FWC do show consistent positive trends over recent decades. The broad-scale increases provide evidence that the Arctic FWC is experiencing intensification. Efforts that aim to develop an adequate observation system are needed to reduce uncertainties and to detect and document ongoing changes in all system components for further evidence of Arctic FWC intensification.
Abstract
Hydrologic cycle intensification is an expected manifestation of a warming climate. Although positive trends in several global average quantities have been reported, no previous studies have documented broad intensification across elements of the Arctic freshwater cycle (FWC). In this study, the authors examine the character and quantitative significance of changes in annual precipitation, evapotranspiration, and river discharge across the terrestrial pan-Arctic over the past several decades from observations and a suite of coupled general circulation models (GCMs). Trends in freshwater flux and storage derived from observations across the Arctic Ocean and surrounding seas are also described.
With few exceptions, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and river discharge fluxes from observations and the GCMs exhibit positive trends. Significant positive trends above the 90% confidence level, however, are not present for all of the observations. Greater confidence in the GCM trends arises through lower interannual variability relative to trend magnitude. Put another way, intrinsic variability in the observations tends to limit confidence in trend robustness. Ocean fluxes are less certain, primarily because of the lack of long-term observations. Where available, salinity and volume flux data suggest some decrease in saltwater inflow to the Barents Sea (i.e., a decrease in freshwater outflow) in recent decades. A decline in freshwater storage across the central Arctic Ocean and suggestions that large-scale circulation plays a dominant role in freshwater trends raise questions as to whether Arctic Ocean freshwater flows are intensifying. Although oceanic fluxes of freshwater are highly variable and consistent trends are difficult to verify, the other components of the Arctic FWC do show consistent positive trends over recent decades. The broad-scale increases provide evidence that the Arctic FWC is experiencing intensification. Efforts that aim to develop an adequate observation system are needed to reduce uncertainties and to detect and document ongoing changes in all system components for further evidence of Arctic FWC intensification.
