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- Author or Editor: Norbert Kalthoff x
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Abstract
The impact of soil moisture on convection-related parameters and convective precipitation over complex terrain is studied by numerical experiments using the nonhydrostatic Consortium for Small-Scale Modeling (COSMO) model. For 1 day of the Convective and Orographically Induced Precipitation Study (COPS) conducted during summer 2007 in southwestern Germany and eastern France, initial soil moisture is varied from −50% to +50% of the reference run in steps of 5%. As synoptic-scale forcing is weak on the day under investigation, the triggering of convection is mainly due to soil–atmosphere interactions and boundary layer processes. Whereas a systematic relationship to soil moisture exists for a number of variables (e.g., latent and sensible fluxes at the ground, near-surface temperature, and humidity), a systematic increase of 24-h accumulated precipitation with increasing initial soil moisture is only present in the simulations that are drier than the reference run. The time evolution of convective precipitation can be divided into two regimes with different conditions to initiate and foster convection. Furthermore, the impact of soil moisture is different for the initiation and modification of convective precipitation. The results demonstrate the high sensitivity of numerical weather prediction to initial soil moisture fields.
Abstract
The impact of soil moisture on convection-related parameters and convective precipitation over complex terrain is studied by numerical experiments using the nonhydrostatic Consortium for Small-Scale Modeling (COSMO) model. For 1 day of the Convective and Orographically Induced Precipitation Study (COPS) conducted during summer 2007 in southwestern Germany and eastern France, initial soil moisture is varied from −50% to +50% of the reference run in steps of 5%. As synoptic-scale forcing is weak on the day under investigation, the triggering of convection is mainly due to soil–atmosphere interactions and boundary layer processes. Whereas a systematic relationship to soil moisture exists for a number of variables (e.g., latent and sensible fluxes at the ground, near-surface temperature, and humidity), a systematic increase of 24-h accumulated precipitation with increasing initial soil moisture is only present in the simulations that are drier than the reference run. The time evolution of convective precipitation can be divided into two regimes with different conditions to initiate and foster convection. Furthermore, the impact of soil moisture is different for the initiation and modification of convective precipitation. The results demonstrate the high sensitivity of numerical weather prediction to initial soil moisture fields.
Comparison of Convective Boundary Layer Characteristics from Aircraft and Wind Lidar ObservationsAbstract
During the Convective Storm Initiation Project experiment, which was conducted in summer 2005 in southern England, vertical velocity in the convective boundary layer (CBL) was measured simultaneously with a research aircraft and a wind lidar. The aircraft performed horizontal flight legs approximately parallel to the prevailing wind direction and centered over the lidar. This measurement setup allows for the comparing of CBL characteristics (CBL depth z
i
, integral length scale l
w
, spectral peak wavelength λ
m
, and vertical velocity variance
Abstract
During the Convective Storm Initiation Project experiment, which was conducted in summer 2005 in southern England, vertical velocity in the convective boundary layer (CBL) was measured simultaneously with a research aircraft and a wind lidar. The aircraft performed horizontal flight legs approximately parallel to the prevailing wind direction and centered over the lidar. This measurement setup allows for the comparing of CBL characteristics (CBL depth z
i
, integral length scale l
w
, spectral peak wavelength λ
m
, and vertical velocity variance
Abstract
Episodic nighttime intrusions of warm air, accompanied by strong winds, enter the enclosed near-circular Meteor Crater basin on clear, synoptically undisturbed nights. Data analysis is used to document these events and to determine their spatial and temporal characteristics, their effects on the atmospheric structure inside the crater, and their relationship to larger-scale flows and atmospheric stability. A conceptual model that is based on hydraulic flow theory is offered to explain warm-air-intrusion events at the crater. The intermittent warm-air-intrusion events were closely related to a stable surface layer and a mesoscale (~50 km) drainage flow on the inclined plain outside the crater and to a continuous shallow cold-air inflow that came over the upstream crater rim. Depending on the upstream conditions, the cold-air inflow at the crater rim deepened temporarily and warmer air from above the stable surface layer on the surrounding plain descended into the crater, as part of the flowing layer. The flow descended up to 140 m into the 170-m-deep crater and did not penetrate the approximately 30-m-deep crater-floor inversion. The intruding air, which was up to 5 K warmer than the crater atmosphere, did not extend into the center of the crater, where the nighttime near-isothermal layer in the ambient crater atmosphere remained largely undisturbed. New investigations are suggested to test the hypothesis that the warm-air intrusions are associated with hydraulic jumps.
Abstract
Episodic nighttime intrusions of warm air, accompanied by strong winds, enter the enclosed near-circular Meteor Crater basin on clear, synoptically undisturbed nights. Data analysis is used to document these events and to determine their spatial and temporal characteristics, their effects on the atmospheric structure inside the crater, and their relationship to larger-scale flows and atmospheric stability. A conceptual model that is based on hydraulic flow theory is offered to explain warm-air-intrusion events at the crater. The intermittent warm-air-intrusion events were closely related to a stable surface layer and a mesoscale (~50 km) drainage flow on the inclined plain outside the crater and to a continuous shallow cold-air inflow that came over the upstream crater rim. Depending on the upstream conditions, the cold-air inflow at the crater rim deepened temporarily and warmer air from above the stable surface layer on the surrounding plain descended into the crater, as part of the flowing layer. The flow descended up to 140 m into the 170-m-deep crater and did not penetrate the approximately 30-m-deep crater-floor inversion. The intruding air, which was up to 5 K warmer than the crater atmosphere, did not extend into the center of the crater, where the nighttime near-isothermal layer in the ambient crater atmosphere remained largely undisturbed. New investigations are suggested to test the hypothesis that the warm-air intrusions are associated with hydraulic jumps.
Abstract
The interactions between a katabatic flow on a plain and a circular basin cut into the plain and surrounded by an elevated rim were examined during a 5-h steady-state period during the Second Meteor Crater Experiment (METCRAX II) to explain observed disturbances to the nocturnal basin atmosphere. The approaching katabatic flow split horizontally around Arizona’s Meteor Crater below a dividing streamline while, above the dividing streamline, an ~50-m-deep stable layer on the plain was carried over the 30–50-m rim of the basin. A flow bifurcation occurred over or just upwind of the rim, with the lowest portion of the stable layer having negative buoyancy relative to the air within the crater pouring continuously over the crater’s upwind rim and accelerating down the inner sidewall. The cold air intrusion was deepest and coldest over the direct upwind crater rim. Cold air penetration depths varied around the inner sidewall depending on the temperature deficit of the inflow relative to the ambient environment inside the crater. A shallow but extremely stable cold pool on the crater floor could not generally be penetrated by the inflow and a hydraulic jump–like feature formed on the lower sidewall as the flow approached the cold pool. The upper nonnegatively buoyant portion of the stable layer was carried horizontally over the crater, forming a neutrally stratified, low–wind speed cavity or wake in the lee of the upwind rim that extended downward into the crater over the upwind sidewall.
Abstract
The interactions between a katabatic flow on a plain and a circular basin cut into the plain and surrounded by an elevated rim were examined during a 5-h steady-state period during the Second Meteor Crater Experiment (METCRAX II) to explain observed disturbances to the nocturnal basin atmosphere. The approaching katabatic flow split horizontally around Arizona’s Meteor Crater below a dividing streamline while, above the dividing streamline, an ~50-m-deep stable layer on the plain was carried over the 30–50-m rim of the basin. A flow bifurcation occurred over or just upwind of the rim, with the lowest portion of the stable layer having negative buoyancy relative to the air within the crater pouring continuously over the crater’s upwind rim and accelerating down the inner sidewall. The cold air intrusion was deepest and coldest over the direct upwind crater rim. Cold air penetration depths varied around the inner sidewall depending on the temperature deficit of the inflow relative to the ambient environment inside the crater. A shallow but extremely stable cold pool on the crater floor could not generally be penetrated by the inflow and a hydraulic jump–like feature formed on the lower sidewall as the flow approached the cold pool. The upper nonnegatively buoyant portion of the stable layer was carried horizontally over the crater, forming a neutrally stratified, low–wind speed cavity or wake in the lee of the upwind rim that extended downward into the crater over the upwind sidewall.
Abstract
In November of 1999, four permanent surface stations were installed in the vicinity of the surface ozone monitoring station on the summit of the Cerro Tololo (2200 m MSL) in Chile at 30°S. These stations were used to study the atmospheric flow conditions, which are important for the interpretation of the ozone measurements at Cerro Tololo. In addition, radiosonde ascents were performed in March of 2000 near the coast and about 60 km inland. Different wind regimes were distinguished. Above 4 km MSL, large-scale westerly winds prevailed, while northerly winds were observed in a band along the coastline between 2- and 4-km-MSL height. The upper boundary of the northerly wind regime corresponded to the mean height of the Andes mountain range. This wind regime resulted from the westerly winds being blocked and forced to flow in parallel to the Andes (when Froude number is less than 1). The phenomenon was also confirmed by model simulations. Seasonally varying, thermally induced valley winds and a sea breeze developed below the northerly wind regime. In summer, the valley winds reached the Cerro Tololo. Diurnal variation of the top boundary of the valley winds also influenced the lower boundary of the northerly wind regime, which was less than 2 km MSL during the night and greater than 2 km MSL during the day. Thus, this observational and modeling study has shown that in summer the baseline ozone monitoring site at Cerro Tololo can be contaminated by polluted air that is transported from the plains by the thermally induced wind systems.
Abstract
In November of 1999, four permanent surface stations were installed in the vicinity of the surface ozone monitoring station on the summit of the Cerro Tololo (2200 m MSL) in Chile at 30°S. These stations were used to study the atmospheric flow conditions, which are important for the interpretation of the ozone measurements at Cerro Tololo. In addition, radiosonde ascents were performed in March of 2000 near the coast and about 60 km inland. Different wind regimes were distinguished. Above 4 km MSL, large-scale westerly winds prevailed, while northerly winds were observed in a band along the coastline between 2- and 4-km-MSL height. The upper boundary of the northerly wind regime corresponded to the mean height of the Andes mountain range. This wind regime resulted from the westerly winds being blocked and forced to flow in parallel to the Andes (when Froude number is less than 1). The phenomenon was also confirmed by model simulations. Seasonally varying, thermally induced valley winds and a sea breeze developed below the northerly wind regime. In summer, the valley winds reached the Cerro Tololo. Diurnal variation of the top boundary of the valley winds also influenced the lower boundary of the northerly wind regime, which was less than 2 km MSL during the night and greater than 2 km MSL during the day. Thus, this observational and modeling study has shown that in summer the baseline ozone monitoring site at Cerro Tololo can be contaminated by polluted air that is transported from the plains by the thermally induced wind systems.
Abstract
The successive stages of nocturnal atmospheric structure inside a small isolated basin are investigated when a katabatically driven flow on an adjacent tilted plain advects cold air over the basin rim. Data came from Arizona’s Meteor Crater during intensive observing period 4 of the Second Meteor Crater Experiment (METCRAX II) when a mesoscale flow above the plain was superimposed on the katabatic flow leading to a flow acceleration and then deceleration over the course of the night. Following an overflow-initiation phase, the basin atmosphere over the upwind inner sidewall progressed through three stages as the katabatic flow accelerated: 1) a cold-air-intrusion phase in which the overflowing cold air accelerated down the upwind inner sidewall, 2) a bifurcation phase in which the katabatic stable layer lifted over the rim included both a nonnegatively buoyant upper layer that flowed horizontally over the basin and a negatively buoyant lower layer (the cold-air intrusion) that continued on the slope below to create a hydraulic jump at the foot of the sidewall, and 3) a final warm-air-intrusion phase in which shear instability in the upper overflowing layer produced a lee wave that brought warm air from the elevated residual layer downward into the basin. Strong winds during the third phase penetrated to the basin floor, stirring the preexisting, intensely stable, cold pool. Later in the night a wind direction change aloft decelerated the katabatic wind and the atmosphere progressed back through the bifurcation and cold-air-intrusion phases. A conceptual diagram illustrates the first four evolutionary phases.
Abstract
The successive stages of nocturnal atmospheric structure inside a small isolated basin are investigated when a katabatically driven flow on an adjacent tilted plain advects cold air over the basin rim. Data came from Arizona’s Meteor Crater during intensive observing period 4 of the Second Meteor Crater Experiment (METCRAX II) when a mesoscale flow above the plain was superimposed on the katabatic flow leading to a flow acceleration and then deceleration over the course of the night. Following an overflow-initiation phase, the basin atmosphere over the upwind inner sidewall progressed through three stages as the katabatic flow accelerated: 1) a cold-air-intrusion phase in which the overflowing cold air accelerated down the upwind inner sidewall, 2) a bifurcation phase in which the katabatic stable layer lifted over the rim included both a nonnegatively buoyant upper layer that flowed horizontally over the basin and a negatively buoyant lower layer (the cold-air intrusion) that continued on the slope below to create a hydraulic jump at the foot of the sidewall, and 3) a final warm-air-intrusion phase in which shear instability in the upper overflowing layer produced a lee wave that brought warm air from the elevated residual layer downward into the basin. Strong winds during the third phase penetrated to the basin floor, stirring the preexisting, intensely stable, cold pool. Later in the night a wind direction change aloft decelerated the katabatic wind and the atmosphere progressed back through the bifurcation and cold-air-intrusion phases. A conceptual diagram illustrates the first four evolutionary phases.
Abstract
While the exchange of mass, momentum, moisture, and energy over horizontally homogeneous, flat terrain is mostly driven by vertical turbulent mixing, thermally and dynamically driven mesoscale flows substantially contribute to the Earth–atmosphere exchange in the atmospheric boundary layer over mountainous terrain (MoBL). The interaction of these processes acting on multiple scales leads to a large spatial variability in the MoBL, whose observational detection requires comprehensive instrumentation and a sophisticated measurement strategy. We designed a field campaign that targets the three-dimensional flow structure and its impact on the MoBL in a major Alpine valley. Taking advantage of an existing network of surface flux towers and remote sensing instrumentation in the Inn Valley, Austria, we added a set of ground-based remote sensing instruments, consisting of Doppler lidars, a ceilometer, a Raman lidar, and a microwave radiometer, and performed radio soundings and aircraft measurements. The objective of the Cross-Valley Flow in the Inn Valley Investigated by Dual-Doppler Lidar Measurements (CROSSINN) experiment is to determine the mean and turbulent characteristics of the flow in the MoBL under different synoptic conditions and to provide an intensive dataset for the future validation of mesoscale and large-eddy simulations. A particular challenge is capturing the two-dimensional kinematic flow in a vertical plane across the whole valley using coplanar synchronized Doppler lidar scans, which allows the detection of cross-valley circulation cells. This article outlines the scientific objectives, instrument setup, measurement strategy, and available data; summarizes the synoptic conditions during the measurement period of 2.5 months; and presents first results.
Abstract
While the exchange of mass, momentum, moisture, and energy over horizontally homogeneous, flat terrain is mostly driven by vertical turbulent mixing, thermally and dynamically driven mesoscale flows substantially contribute to the Earth–atmosphere exchange in the atmospheric boundary layer over mountainous terrain (MoBL). The interaction of these processes acting on multiple scales leads to a large spatial variability in the MoBL, whose observational detection requires comprehensive instrumentation and a sophisticated measurement strategy. We designed a field campaign that targets the three-dimensional flow structure and its impact on the MoBL in a major Alpine valley. Taking advantage of an existing network of surface flux towers and remote sensing instrumentation in the Inn Valley, Austria, we added a set of ground-based remote sensing instruments, consisting of Doppler lidars, a ceilometer, a Raman lidar, and a microwave radiometer, and performed radio soundings and aircraft measurements. The objective of the Cross-Valley Flow in the Inn Valley Investigated by Dual-Doppler Lidar Measurements (CROSSINN) experiment is to determine the mean and turbulent characteristics of the flow in the MoBL under different synoptic conditions and to provide an intensive dataset for the future validation of mesoscale and large-eddy simulations. A particular challenge is capturing the two-dimensional kinematic flow in a vertical plane across the whole valley using coplanar synchronized Doppler lidar scans, which allows the detection of cross-valley circulation cells. This article outlines the scientific objectives, instrument setup, measurement strategy, and available data; summarizes the synoptic conditions during the measurement period of 2.5 months; and presents first results.
Abstract
An intensive observation period was conducted in September 2017 in the central Namib, Namibia, as part of the project Namib Fog Life Cycle Analysis (NaFoLiCA). The purpose of the field campaign was to investigate the spatial and temporal patterns of the coastal fog that occurs regularly during nighttime and morning hours. The fog is often linked to advection of a marine stratus that intercepts with the terrain up to 100 km inland. Meteorological data, including cloud base height, fog deposition, liquid water path, and vertical profiles of wind speed/direction and temperature, were measured continuously during the campaign. Additionally, profiles of temperature and relative humidity were sampled during five selected nights with stratus/fog at both coastal and inland sites using tethered balloon soundings, drone profiling, and radiosondes. This paper presents an overview of the scientific goals of the field campaign; describes the experimental setup, the measurements carried out, and the meteorological conditions during the intensive observation period; and presents first results with a focus on a single fog event.
Abstract
An intensive observation period was conducted in September 2017 in the central Namib, Namibia, as part of the project Namib Fog Life Cycle Analysis (NaFoLiCA). The purpose of the field campaign was to investigate the spatial and temporal patterns of the coastal fog that occurs regularly during nighttime and morning hours. The fog is often linked to advection of a marine stratus that intercepts with the terrain up to 100 km inland. Meteorological data, including cloud base height, fog deposition, liquid water path, and vertical profiles of wind speed/direction and temperature, were measured continuously during the campaign. Additionally, profiles of temperature and relative humidity were sampled during five selected nights with stratus/fog at both coastal and inland sites using tethered balloon soundings, drone profiling, and radiosondes. This paper presents an overview of the scientific goals of the field campaign; describes the experimental setup, the measurements carried out, and the meteorological conditions during the intensive observation period; and presents first results with a focus on a single fog event.
The Mediterranean region is frequently affected by heavy precipitation events associated with flash floods, landslides, and mudslides that cause hundreds of millions of euros in damages per year and, often, casualties. A major field campaign was devoted to heavy precipitation and f lash f loods from 5 September to 6 November 2012 within the framework of the 10-yr international Hydrological Cycle in the Mediterranean Experiment (HyMeX) dedicated to the hydrological cycle and related high-impact events. The 2-month field campaign took place over the northwestern Mediterranean Sea and its surrounding coastal regions in France, Italy, and Spain. The observation strategy of the field experiment was devised to improve knowledge of the following key components leading to heavy precipitation and flash flooding in the region: 1) the marine atmospheric f lows that transport moist and conditionally unstable air toward the coasts, 2) the Mediterranean Sea acting as a moisture and energy source, 3) the dynamics and microphysics of the convective systems producing heavy precipitation, and 4) the hydrological processes during flash floods. This article provides the rationale for developing this first HyMeX field experiment and an overview of its design and execution. Highlights of some intensive observation periods illustrate the potential of the unique datasets collected for process understanding, model improvement, and data assimilation.
The Mediterranean region is frequently affected by heavy precipitation events associated with flash floods, landslides, and mudslides that cause hundreds of millions of euros in damages per year and, often, casualties. A major field campaign was devoted to heavy precipitation and f lash f loods from 5 September to 6 November 2012 within the framework of the 10-yr international Hydrological Cycle in the Mediterranean Experiment (HyMeX) dedicated to the hydrological cycle and related high-impact events. The 2-month field campaign took place over the northwestern Mediterranean Sea and its surrounding coastal regions in France, Italy, and Spain. The observation strategy of the field experiment was devised to improve knowledge of the following key components leading to heavy precipitation and flash flooding in the region: 1) the marine atmospheric f lows that transport moist and conditionally unstable air toward the coasts, 2) the Mediterranean Sea acting as a moisture and energy source, 3) the dynamics and microphysics of the convective systems producing heavy precipitation, and 4) the hydrological processes during flash floods. This article provides the rationale for developing this first HyMeX field experiment and an overview of its design and execution. Highlights of some intensive observation periods illustrate the potential of the unique datasets collected for process understanding, model improvement, and data assimilation.
