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Abstract
The dynamics of the Southern Ocean have been studied using two high-resolution models, namely the Fine Resolution Antarctic Model (FRAM) and the Parallel Ocean Program (POP) model. Analysis of these models includes zonal averaging at Drake Passage latitudes, averaging along streamlines (or contours of constant sea surface height), and examining particular subregions of the flow in some detail. The subregions considered in the local analysis capture different flow regimes in the vicinity of the Crozet Plateau, the Macquarie–Ridge Complex, and Drake Passage.
Many aspects of the model results are similar, for example, the magnitude of eddy kinetic energy (EKE) in the “eddy rich” regions associated with the large-scale topography. An important difference between the two models is that away from the strong topographic features the level of EKE in POP is 2–4 times greater than in FRAM, giving values close to those observed in altimeter studies.
In both FRAM and POP instability analysis performed over ACC jets showed that baroclinic instability is likely to be the main mechanism responsible for generating EKE. In the case of FRAM this view is confirmed by regional energy budgets made within the ACC. In contrast to quasigeostrophic numerical experiments upgradient transfer of momentum was not found in the whole ACC, or over large subregions of the Southern Ocean. The only place it occurred was in localized tight jets (e.g., the flow northeast of Drake Passage) where the transients are found to transfer kinetic energy into energy of the mean flow. The transient eddies result in a net deceleration of the ACC for the streamwise averaging.
Abstract
The dynamics of the Southern Ocean have been studied using two high-resolution models, namely the Fine Resolution Antarctic Model (FRAM) and the Parallel Ocean Program (POP) model. Analysis of these models includes zonal averaging at Drake Passage latitudes, averaging along streamlines (or contours of constant sea surface height), and examining particular subregions of the flow in some detail. The subregions considered in the local analysis capture different flow regimes in the vicinity of the Crozet Plateau, the Macquarie–Ridge Complex, and Drake Passage.
Many aspects of the model results are similar, for example, the magnitude of eddy kinetic energy (EKE) in the “eddy rich” regions associated with the large-scale topography. An important difference between the two models is that away from the strong topographic features the level of EKE in POP is 2–4 times greater than in FRAM, giving values close to those observed in altimeter studies.
In both FRAM and POP instability analysis performed over ACC jets showed that baroclinic instability is likely to be the main mechanism responsible for generating EKE. In the case of FRAM this view is confirmed by regional energy budgets made within the ACC. In contrast to quasigeostrophic numerical experiments upgradient transfer of momentum was not found in the whole ACC, or over large subregions of the Southern Ocean. The only place it occurred was in localized tight jets (e.g., the flow northeast of Drake Passage) where the transients are found to transfer kinetic energy into energy of the mean flow. The transient eddies result in a net deceleration of the ACC for the streamwise averaging.
Abstract
An empirical atmospheric model has been developed which generates values for pressure, density, temperature and winds from surface levels to orbital altitudes. The output parameters consist of components for: 1) latitude, longitude, and altitude dependent monthly means; 2) quasibiennial oscillations; and 3) random perturbations to partially simulate the variability due to synoptic, diurnal, planetary wave and gravity wave variations. The monthly mean models consist of: (i) NASA's four dimensional worldwide model, developed by Environmental Research and Technology, for height, latitude, and longitude dependent monthly means from the surface to 25 km; and (ii) a newly developed latitude-longitude dependent model which is an extension of the Groves latitude dependent model for the region between 25 and 90 km. The Jacchia 1970 model is used above 90 km and is faired with the modified Groves values between 90 and 115 km. Quasibiennial and random variation perturbations are computed from parameters determined from various empirical studies, and are added to the monthly mean values. This model has been developed as a computer program which can be used to generate altitude profiles of atmospheric variables for any month at any desired location, or to evaluate atmospheric parameters along any simulated trajectory through the atmosphere. Various applications of the model are discussed, and results are presented which show that good simulation of the thermodynamic and circulation characteristics of the atmosphere can be achieved with the model.
Abstract
An empirical atmospheric model has been developed which generates values for pressure, density, temperature and winds from surface levels to orbital altitudes. The output parameters consist of components for: 1) latitude, longitude, and altitude dependent monthly means; 2) quasibiennial oscillations; and 3) random perturbations to partially simulate the variability due to synoptic, diurnal, planetary wave and gravity wave variations. The monthly mean models consist of: (i) NASA's four dimensional worldwide model, developed by Environmental Research and Technology, for height, latitude, and longitude dependent monthly means from the surface to 25 km; and (ii) a newly developed latitude-longitude dependent model which is an extension of the Groves latitude dependent model for the region between 25 and 90 km. The Jacchia 1970 model is used above 90 km and is faired with the modified Groves values between 90 and 115 km. Quasibiennial and random variation perturbations are computed from parameters determined from various empirical studies, and are added to the monthly mean values. This model has been developed as a computer program which can be used to generate altitude profiles of atmospheric variables for any month at any desired location, or to evaluate atmospheric parameters along any simulated trajectory through the atmosphere. Various applications of the model are discussed, and results are presented which show that good simulation of the thermodynamic and circulation characteristics of the atmosphere can be achieved with the model.
Abstract
A technique for estimating cloud radiative properties (i.e., spectral emissivity and reflectivity) in the infrared is developed based on observations at a spectral resolution of approximately 0.5 cm−1. The algorithm makes use of spectral radiance observations and theoretical calculations of the infrared spectra for clear and cloudy conditions along with lidar-determined cloud-base and cloud-top pressure. An advantage of the high spectral resolution observations is that the absorption effects of atmospheric gases are minimized by analyzing between gaseous absorption lines. The technique is applicable to both ground-based and aircraft-based platforms and derives the effective particle size and associated cloud water content required to satisfy, theoretically, the observed cloud infrared spectra. The algorithm is tested using theoretical simulations and applied to observations made with the University of Wisconsin's ground-based and NASA ER-2 aircraft High-Resolution Infrared Spectrometer instruments.
Abstract
A technique for estimating cloud radiative properties (i.e., spectral emissivity and reflectivity) in the infrared is developed based on observations at a spectral resolution of approximately 0.5 cm−1. The algorithm makes use of spectral radiance observations and theoretical calculations of the infrared spectra for clear and cloudy conditions along with lidar-determined cloud-base and cloud-top pressure. An advantage of the high spectral resolution observations is that the absorption effects of atmospheric gases are minimized by analyzing between gaseous absorption lines. The technique is applicable to both ground-based and aircraft-based platforms and derives the effective particle size and associated cloud water content required to satisfy, theoretically, the observed cloud infrared spectra. The algorithm is tested using theoretical simulations and applied to observations made with the University of Wisconsin's ground-based and NASA ER-2 aircraft High-Resolution Infrared Spectrometer instruments.
Abstract
A 5-km horizontal resolution regional ocean–sea ice–ice shelf model of the Ross Sea is used to examine the effects of changes in wind strength, air temperature, and increased meltwater input on the formation of high-salinity shelf water (HSSW), on-shelf transport and vertical mixing of Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) and its transformation into modified CDW (MCDW), and basal melt of the Ross Ice Shelf (RIS). A 20% increase in wind speed, with no other atmospheric changes, reduced summer sea ice minimum area by 20%, opposite the observed trend of the past three decades. Increased winds with spatially uniform, reduced atmospheric temperatures increased summer sea ice concentrations, on-shelf transport of CDW, vertical mixing of MCDW, HSSW volume, and (albeit small) RIS basal melt. Winds and atmospheric temperatures from the SRES A1B scenario forcing of the MPI ECHAM5 model decreased on-shelf transport of CDW and vertical mixing of MCDW for 2046–61 and 2085–2100 relative to the end of the twentieth century. The RIS basal melt increased slightly by 2046–61 (9%) and 2085–2100 (13%). Advection of lower-salinity water onto the continental shelf did not significantly affect sea ice extent for the 2046–61 or 2085–2100 simulations. However, freshening reduces on-shelf transport of CDW, vertical mixing of MCDW, and the volume of HSSW produced. The reduced vertical mixing of MCDW, while partially balanced by the reduced on-shelf transport of CDW, enhances the RIS basal melt rate relative to the twentieth-century simulation for 2046–61 (13%) and 2085–2100 (17%).
Abstract
A 5-km horizontal resolution regional ocean–sea ice–ice shelf model of the Ross Sea is used to examine the effects of changes in wind strength, air temperature, and increased meltwater input on the formation of high-salinity shelf water (HSSW), on-shelf transport and vertical mixing of Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) and its transformation into modified CDW (MCDW), and basal melt of the Ross Ice Shelf (RIS). A 20% increase in wind speed, with no other atmospheric changes, reduced summer sea ice minimum area by 20%, opposite the observed trend of the past three decades. Increased winds with spatially uniform, reduced atmospheric temperatures increased summer sea ice concentrations, on-shelf transport of CDW, vertical mixing of MCDW, HSSW volume, and (albeit small) RIS basal melt. Winds and atmospheric temperatures from the SRES A1B scenario forcing of the MPI ECHAM5 model decreased on-shelf transport of CDW and vertical mixing of MCDW for 2046–61 and 2085–2100 relative to the end of the twentieth century. The RIS basal melt increased slightly by 2046–61 (9%) and 2085–2100 (13%). Advection of lower-salinity water onto the continental shelf did not significantly affect sea ice extent for the 2046–61 or 2085–2100 simulations. However, freshening reduces on-shelf transport of CDW, vertical mixing of MCDW, and the volume of HSSW produced. The reduced vertical mixing of MCDW, while partially balanced by the reduced on-shelf transport of CDW, enhances the RIS basal melt rate relative to the twentieth-century simulation for 2046–61 (13%) and 2085–2100 (17%).
Abstract
In this paper an initial analysis of an 0.1° simulation of the North Atlantic Ocean using a level-coordinate ocean general circulation model forced with realistic winds covering the period 1985–96 is presented. Results are compared to the North Atlantic sector of a global 0.28° simulation with similar surface forcing and to a variety of satellite and in situ observations. The simulation shows substantial improvements in both the eddy variability and the time-mean circulation compared to previous eddy-permitting simulations with resolutions in the range of 1/2°–1/6°. The resolution is finer than the zonal-mean first baroclinic mode Rossby radius at all latitudes, and the model appears to be capturing the bulk of the spectrum of mesoscale energy. The eddy kinetic energy constitutes 70% of the total basin-averaged kinetic energy. Model results agree well with observations of the magnitude and geographical distribution of eddy kinetic energy and sea-surface height variability, with the wavenumber–frequency spectrum of surface height anomalies in the Gulf Stream, with estimates of the eddy length scale as a function of latitude, and with measurements of eddy kinetic energy as a function of depth in the eastern basin. The mean circulation also shows significant improvements compared to previous models, although there are notable remaining discrepancies with observations in some areas. The Gulf Stream separates at Cape Hatteras, and its speed and cross-stream structure are in good agreement with current meter data; however, its path is somewhat too far south and its meander envelope too broad to the west of the New England Seamounts. The North Atlantic Current is remarkably well simulated in the model: it exhibits meanders and troughs in its time-mean path that agree with similar structures seen in float data, although the separation of this current in the region of the “Northwest Corner” is displaced somewhat too far to the northwest. The Azores Current appears in the simulation, perhaps for the first time in a basin-scale model, and its position, total transport, and eddy variability are consistent with observational estimates.
Abstract
In this paper an initial analysis of an 0.1° simulation of the North Atlantic Ocean using a level-coordinate ocean general circulation model forced with realistic winds covering the period 1985–96 is presented. Results are compared to the North Atlantic sector of a global 0.28° simulation with similar surface forcing and to a variety of satellite and in situ observations. The simulation shows substantial improvements in both the eddy variability and the time-mean circulation compared to previous eddy-permitting simulations with resolutions in the range of 1/2°–1/6°. The resolution is finer than the zonal-mean first baroclinic mode Rossby radius at all latitudes, and the model appears to be capturing the bulk of the spectrum of mesoscale energy. The eddy kinetic energy constitutes 70% of the total basin-averaged kinetic energy. Model results agree well with observations of the magnitude and geographical distribution of eddy kinetic energy and sea-surface height variability, with the wavenumber–frequency spectrum of surface height anomalies in the Gulf Stream, with estimates of the eddy length scale as a function of latitude, and with measurements of eddy kinetic energy as a function of depth in the eastern basin. The mean circulation also shows significant improvements compared to previous models, although there are notable remaining discrepancies with observations in some areas. The Gulf Stream separates at Cape Hatteras, and its speed and cross-stream structure are in good agreement with current meter data; however, its path is somewhat too far south and its meander envelope too broad to the west of the New England Seamounts. The North Atlantic Current is remarkably well simulated in the model: it exhibits meanders and troughs in its time-mean path that agree with similar structures seen in float data, although the separation of this current in the region of the “Northwest Corner” is displaced somewhat too far to the northwest. The Azores Current appears in the simulation, perhaps for the first time in a basin-scale model, and its position, total transport, and eddy variability are consistent with observational estimates.
Doppler Correction of Wave Frequency Spectra Measured by Underway VesselsAbstract
“Sea State and Boundary Layer Physics of the Emerging Arctic Ocean” is an ongoing Departmental Research Initiative sponsored by the Office of Naval Research (http://www.apl.washington.edu/project/project.php?id=arctic_sea_state). The field component took place in the fall of 2015 within the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas and involved the deployment of a number of wave instruments, including a downward-looking Riegl laser rangefinder mounted on the foremast of the R/V Sikuliaq. Although time series measurements on a stationary vessel are thought to be accurate, an underway vessel introduces a Doppler shift to the observed wave spectrum. This Doppler shift is a function of the wavenumber vector and the velocity vector of the vessel. Of all the possible relative angles between wave direction and vessel heading, there are two main scenarios: 1) vessel steaming into waves and 2) vessel steaming with waves. Previous studies have considered only a subset of cases, and all were in scenario 1. This was likely to avoid ambiguities, which arise when the vessel is steaming with waves. This study addresses the ambiguities and analyzes arbitrary cases. In addition, a practical method is provided that is useful in situations when the vessel is changing speed or heading. These methods improved the laser rangefinder estimates of spectral shapes and peak parameters when compared to nearby buoys and a spectral wave model.
Abstract
“Sea State and Boundary Layer Physics of the Emerging Arctic Ocean” is an ongoing Departmental Research Initiative sponsored by the Office of Naval Research (http://www.apl.washington.edu/project/project.php?id=arctic_sea_state). The field component took place in the fall of 2015 within the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas and involved the deployment of a number of wave instruments, including a downward-looking Riegl laser rangefinder mounted on the foremast of the R/V Sikuliaq. Although time series measurements on a stationary vessel are thought to be accurate, an underway vessel introduces a Doppler shift to the observed wave spectrum. This Doppler shift is a function of the wavenumber vector and the velocity vector of the vessel. Of all the possible relative angles between wave direction and vessel heading, there are two main scenarios: 1) vessel steaming into waves and 2) vessel steaming with waves. Previous studies have considered only a subset of cases, and all were in scenario 1. This was likely to avoid ambiguities, which arise when the vessel is steaming with waves. This study addresses the ambiguities and analyzes arbitrary cases. In addition, a practical method is provided that is useful in situations when the vessel is changing speed or heading. These methods improved the laser rangefinder estimates of spectral shapes and peak parameters when compared to nearby buoys and a spectral wave model.
Abstract
The authors present the first quantitative comparison between new velocity datasets and high-resolution models in the North Atlantic subpolar gyre [1/10° Parallel Ocean Program model (POPNA10), Miami Isopycnic Coordinate Ocean Model (MICOM), ⅙° Atlantic model (ATL6), and Family of Linked Atlantic Ocean Model Experiments (FLAME)]. At the surface, the model velocities agree generally well with World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) drifter data. Two noticeable exceptions are the weakness of the East Greenland coastal current in models and the presence in the surface layers of a strong southwestward East Reykjanes Ridge Current. At depths, the most prominent feature of the circulation is the boundary current following the continental slope. In this narrow flow, it is found that gridded float datasets cannot be used for a quantitative comparison with models. The models have very different patterns of deep convection, and it is suggested that this could be related to the differences in their barotropic transport at Cape Farewell. Models show a large drift in watermass properties with a salinization of the Labrador Sea Water. The authors believe that the main cause is related to horizontal transports of salt because models with different forcing and vertical mixing share the same salinization problem. A remarkable feature of the model solutions is the large westward transport over Reykjanes Ridge [10 Sv (Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) or more].
Abstract
The authors present the first quantitative comparison between new velocity datasets and high-resolution models in the North Atlantic subpolar gyre [1/10° Parallel Ocean Program model (POPNA10), Miami Isopycnic Coordinate Ocean Model (MICOM), ⅙° Atlantic model (ATL6), and Family of Linked Atlantic Ocean Model Experiments (FLAME)]. At the surface, the model velocities agree generally well with World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) drifter data. Two noticeable exceptions are the weakness of the East Greenland coastal current in models and the presence in the surface layers of a strong southwestward East Reykjanes Ridge Current. At depths, the most prominent feature of the circulation is the boundary current following the continental slope. In this narrow flow, it is found that gridded float datasets cannot be used for a quantitative comparison with models. The models have very different patterns of deep convection, and it is suggested that this could be related to the differences in their barotropic transport at Cape Farewell. Models show a large drift in watermass properties with a salinization of the Labrador Sea Water. The authors believe that the main cause is related to horizontal transports of salt because models with different forcing and vertical mixing share the same salinization problem. A remarkable feature of the model solutions is the large westward transport over Reykjanes Ridge [10 Sv (Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) or more].
Abstract
The Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI) is a well-calibrated ground-based instrument that measures high-resolution atmospheric emitted radiances from the atmosphere. The spectral resolution of the instrument is better than one wavenumber between 3 and 18 μm within the infrared spectrum. The AERI instrument detects vertical and temporal changes of temperature and water vapor in the planetary boundary layer. Excellent agreement between radiosonde and AERI retrievals for a 6-month sample of coincident profiles is presented in this paper. In addition, a statistical seasonal analysis of retrieval and radiosonde differences is discussed. High temporal and moderate vertical resolution in the lowest 3 km of the atmosphere allows meteorologically important mesoscale features to be detected. AERI participation in the Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement program at the Southern Great Plains Cloud and Radiation Testbed (SGP CART) has allowed development of a robust operational atmospheric temperature and water vapor retrieval algorithm in a dynamic meteorological environment near Lamont, Oklahoma. Operating in a continuous mode, AERI temperature and water vapor retrievals obtained through inversion of the infrared radiative transfer equation provide profiles of atmospheric state every 10 min to 3 km in clear sky or below cloud base. Boundary layer evolution, cold or warm frontal passages, drylines, and thunderstorm outflow boundaries are all recorded, offering important meteorological information. With important vertical thermodynamic information between radiosonde locations and launch times, AERI retrievals provide data for planetary boundary layer research, mesoscale model initialization, verification, and nowcasting. This paper discusses retrieval performance at the SGP CART site, as well as interesting meteorological case studies captured by AERI profiles. The AERI system represents an important new capability for operational weather- and airport-monitoring applications.
Abstract
The Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI) is a well-calibrated ground-based instrument that measures high-resolution atmospheric emitted radiances from the atmosphere. The spectral resolution of the instrument is better than one wavenumber between 3 and 18 μm within the infrared spectrum. The AERI instrument detects vertical and temporal changes of temperature and water vapor in the planetary boundary layer. Excellent agreement between radiosonde and AERI retrievals for a 6-month sample of coincident profiles is presented in this paper. In addition, a statistical seasonal analysis of retrieval and radiosonde differences is discussed. High temporal and moderate vertical resolution in the lowest 3 km of the atmosphere allows meteorologically important mesoscale features to be detected. AERI participation in the Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement program at the Southern Great Plains Cloud and Radiation Testbed (SGP CART) has allowed development of a robust operational atmospheric temperature and water vapor retrieval algorithm in a dynamic meteorological environment near Lamont, Oklahoma. Operating in a continuous mode, AERI temperature and water vapor retrievals obtained through inversion of the infrared radiative transfer equation provide profiles of atmospheric state every 10 min to 3 km in clear sky or below cloud base. Boundary layer evolution, cold or warm frontal passages, drylines, and thunderstorm outflow boundaries are all recorded, offering important meteorological information. With important vertical thermodynamic information between radiosonde locations and launch times, AERI retrievals provide data for planetary boundary layer research, mesoscale model initialization, verification, and nowcasting. This paper discusses retrieval performance at the SGP CART site, as well as interesting meteorological case studies captured by AERI profiles. The AERI system represents an important new capability for operational weather- and airport-monitoring applications.
Abstract
The surface-based Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI) is an important measurement component of the Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program. The method used to retrieve temperature and moisture profiles of the plantetary boundary layer from the AERI’s downwelling spectral radiance observations is described.
Abstract
The surface-based Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI) is an important measurement component of the Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program. The method used to retrieve temperature and moisture profiles of the plantetary boundary layer from the AERI’s downwelling spectral radiance observations is described.
Abstract
The Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program (ARM) has funded the development and installation of five ground-based atmospheric emitted radiance interferometer (AERI) systems at the Southern Great Plains (SGP) site. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the AERI instrument, improvement of the AERI temperature and moisture retrieval technique, new profiling utility, and validation of high-temporal-resolution AERI-derived stability indices important for convective nowcasting. AERI systems have been built at the University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, and deployed in the Oklahoma–Kansas area collocated with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 404-MHz wind profilers at Lamont, Vici, Purcell, and Morris, Oklahoma, and Hillsboro, Kansas. The AERI systems produce absolutely calibrated atmospheric infrared emitted radiances at one-wavenumber resolution from 3 to 20 μm at less than 10-min temporal resolution. The instruments are robust, are automated in the field, and are monitored via the Internet in near–real time. The infrared radiances measured by the AERI systems contain meteorological information about the vertical structure of temperature and water vapor in the planetary boundary layer (PBL; 0–3 km). A mature temperature and water vapor retrieval algorithm has been developed over a 10-yr period that provides vertical profiles at less than 10-min temporal resolution to 3 km in the PBL. A statistical retrieval is combined with the hourly Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) sounder water vapor or Rapid Update Cycle, version 2, numerical weather prediction (NWP) model profiles to provide a nominal hybrid first guess of temperature and moisture to the AERI physical retrieval algorithm. The hourly satellite or NWP data provide a best estimate of the atmospheric state in the upper PBL; the AERI radiances provide the mesoscale temperature and moisture profile correction in the PBL to the large-scale GOES and NWP model profiles at high temporal resolution. The retrieval product has been named AERIplus because the first guess used for the mathematical physical inversion uses an optimal combination of statistical climatological, satellite, and numerical model data to provide a best estimate of the atmospheric state. The AERI physical retrieval algorithm adjusts the boundary layer temperature and moisture structure provided by the hybrid first guess to fit the observed AERI downwelling radiance measurement. This provides a calculated AERI temperature and moisture profile using AERI-observed radiances “plus” the best-known atmospheric state above the boundary layer using NWP or satellite data. AERIplus retrieval accuracy for temperature has been determined to be better than 1 K, and water vapor retrieval accuracy is approximately 5% in absolute water vapor when compared with well-calibrated radiosondes from the surface to an altitude of 3 km. Because AERI can monitor the thermodynamics where the atmosphere usually changes most rapidly, atmospheric stability tendency information is readily available from the system. High-temporal-resolution retrieval of convective available potential energy, convective inhibition, and PBL equivalent potential temperature θ e are provided in near–real time from all five AERI systems at the ARM SGP site, offering a unique look at the atmospheric state. This new source of meteorological data has shown excellent skill in detecting rapid synoptic and mesoscale meteorological changes within clear atmospheric conditions. This method has utility in nowcasting temperature inversion strength and destabilization caused by θ e advection. This high-temporal-resolution monitoring of rapid atmospheric destabilization is especially important for nowcasting severe convection.
Abstract
The Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program (ARM) has funded the development and installation of five ground-based atmospheric emitted radiance interferometer (AERI) systems at the Southern Great Plains (SGP) site. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the AERI instrument, improvement of the AERI temperature and moisture retrieval technique, new profiling utility, and validation of high-temporal-resolution AERI-derived stability indices important for convective nowcasting. AERI systems have been built at the University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, and deployed in the Oklahoma–Kansas area collocated with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 404-MHz wind profilers at Lamont, Vici, Purcell, and Morris, Oklahoma, and Hillsboro, Kansas. The AERI systems produce absolutely calibrated atmospheric infrared emitted radiances at one-wavenumber resolution from 3 to 20 μm at less than 10-min temporal resolution. The instruments are robust, are automated in the field, and are monitored via the Internet in near–real time. The infrared radiances measured by the AERI systems contain meteorological information about the vertical structure of temperature and water vapor in the planetary boundary layer (PBL; 0–3 km). A mature temperature and water vapor retrieval algorithm has been developed over a 10-yr period that provides vertical profiles at less than 10-min temporal resolution to 3 km in the PBL. A statistical retrieval is combined with the hourly Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) sounder water vapor or Rapid Update Cycle, version 2, numerical weather prediction (NWP) model profiles to provide a nominal hybrid first guess of temperature and moisture to the AERI physical retrieval algorithm. The hourly satellite or NWP data provide a best estimate of the atmospheric state in the upper PBL; the AERI radiances provide the mesoscale temperature and moisture profile correction in the PBL to the large-scale GOES and NWP model profiles at high temporal resolution. The retrieval product has been named AERIplus because the first guess used for the mathematical physical inversion uses an optimal combination of statistical climatological, satellite, and numerical model data to provide a best estimate of the atmospheric state. The AERI physical retrieval algorithm adjusts the boundary layer temperature and moisture structure provided by the hybrid first guess to fit the observed AERI downwelling radiance measurement. This provides a calculated AERI temperature and moisture profile using AERI-observed radiances “plus” the best-known atmospheric state above the boundary layer using NWP or satellite data. AERIplus retrieval accuracy for temperature has been determined to be better than 1 K, and water vapor retrieval accuracy is approximately 5% in absolute water vapor when compared with well-calibrated radiosondes from the surface to an altitude of 3 km. Because AERI can monitor the thermodynamics where the atmosphere usually changes most rapidly, atmospheric stability tendency information is readily available from the system. High-temporal-resolution retrieval of convective available potential energy, convective inhibition, and PBL equivalent potential temperature θ e are provided in near–real time from all five AERI systems at the ARM SGP site, offering a unique look at the atmospheric state. This new source of meteorological data has shown excellent skill in detecting rapid synoptic and mesoscale meteorological changes within clear atmospheric conditions. This method has utility in nowcasting temperature inversion strength and destabilization caused by θ e advection. This high-temporal-resolution monitoring of rapid atmospheric destabilization is especially important for nowcasting severe convection.
