Search Results
You are looking at 1 - 10 of 41 items for
- Author or Editor: P. A. Jones x
- Refine by Access: All Content x
Abstract
Observations of cloud cover (in oktas or tenths) by ground-based observers have been studied to investigate the distribution of cloud-cover amounts and the correlation of cloud cover in time and space. The correlation between observations at the same station, at different times, was found to vary as an exponential of the time separation. Similarly, the correlation between observations at different stations at the same time was found to vary as an exponential of the distance between the stations. Characteristic scales of cloud variation in space and time were derived from these exponentials and the shape of the distribution (in oktas or tenths) of cloud cover was described by a shape parameter. It was found that the data show only weak correlations between these three derived parameters, although it may be expected from physical arguments that the parameters are related.
Abstract
Observations of cloud cover (in oktas or tenths) by ground-based observers have been studied to investigate the distribution of cloud-cover amounts and the correlation of cloud cover in time and space. The correlation between observations at the same station, at different times, was found to vary as an exponential of the time separation. Similarly, the correlation between observations at different stations at the same time was found to vary as an exponential of the distance between the stations. Characteristic scales of cloud variation in space and time were derived from these exponentials and the shape of the distribution (in oktas or tenths) of cloud cover was described by a shape parameter. It was found that the data show only weak correlations between these three derived parameters, although it may be expected from physical arguments that the parameters are related.
Abstract
Historical records of mean monthly cloud amount over Australia have been studied to determine whether there is any long-term trend. Of 318 stations with more than 30 years of data, 252 show an increase and 66 a decrease. The cloud amount shows a rise of 5% between 1910 and 1989, when averaged over all stations. The trend is not uniform, however, with a slight fall in cloud between 1910 and 1930 and with most of the rise between 1930 and 1980. Sunshine records were used to check the cloud record for systematic errors. Monthly average cloud and sunshine fractions are correlated with coefficient r=−0.87 and with best-fit slope −1.00. The sum of cloud and sunshine fractions is around 1.2, whereas it may be expected that the sun should be 1.0 if the cloud and sunshine fractions are complementary. The sunshine and cloud variations are in close agreement for the period 1950 to 1989. The subset of stations that have sunshine records shows no overall change in cloudiness or sunshine over this period, with 31 stations showing an increase in cloud and 28 a decrease. An independent dataset of 41 stations, mostly airports, shows no significant trend over the period from 1940 to 1988, with 24 stations showing a decrease in cloud and only 17 showing an increase over this period. It is suggested that there is an overall long-term increase in total cloud amount over Australia, but that it does not occur uniformly for all stations, so that some groups of stations show no increase. However, the overall trend must remain tentative until the reason for the differences between the datasets is clarified.
Abstract
Historical records of mean monthly cloud amount over Australia have been studied to determine whether there is any long-term trend. Of 318 stations with more than 30 years of data, 252 show an increase and 66 a decrease. The cloud amount shows a rise of 5% between 1910 and 1989, when averaged over all stations. The trend is not uniform, however, with a slight fall in cloud between 1910 and 1930 and with most of the rise between 1930 and 1980. Sunshine records were used to check the cloud record for systematic errors. Monthly average cloud and sunshine fractions are correlated with coefficient r=−0.87 and with best-fit slope −1.00. The sum of cloud and sunshine fractions is around 1.2, whereas it may be expected that the sun should be 1.0 if the cloud and sunshine fractions are complementary. The sunshine and cloud variations are in close agreement for the period 1950 to 1989. The subset of stations that have sunshine records shows no overall change in cloudiness or sunshine over this period, with 31 stations showing an increase in cloud and 28 a decrease. An independent dataset of 41 stations, mostly airports, shows no significant trend over the period from 1940 to 1988, with 24 stations showing a decrease in cloud and only 17 showing an increase over this period. It is suggested that there is an overall long-term increase in total cloud amount over Australia, but that it does not occur uniformly for all stations, so that some groups of stations show no increase. However, the overall trend must remain tentative until the reason for the differences between the datasets is clarified.
Abstract
This study is an extensive revision of the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) land station temperature database that is used to produce a gridbox dataset of 5° latitude × 5° longitude temperature anomalies. The new database comprises 5159 station records, of which 4167 have enough data for the 1961–90 period to calculate or estimate the necessary averages. Apart from the increase in station numbers compared to the earlier study in 1994, many station records have had their data replaced by newly homogenized series that have been produced by several recent studies. New versions of all the gridded datasets currently available on the CRU Web site (http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk) have been developed. This includes combinations with marine (sea surface temperature anomalies) data over the oceans and versions with adjustment of the variance of individual gridbox series to remove the effects of changing station numbers through time.
Hemispheric and global temperature averages for land areas developed with the new dataset differ slightly from those developed in 1994. Possible reasons for the differences between the new and the earlier analysis and those from the National Climatic Data Center and the Goddard Institute for Space Studies are discussed. Differences are greatest over the Southern Hemisphere and at the beginnings and ends of each time series and relate to gridbox sizes and data availability. The rate of annual warming for global land areas over the 1901–2000 period is estimated by least squares to be 0.07°C decade−1 (significant at better than the 99.9% level). Warming is not continuous but occurs principally over two periods (about 1920–45 and since 1975). Annual temperature series for the seven continents and the Arctic all show significant warming over the twentieth century, with significant (95%) warming for 1920–44 for North America, the Arctic, Africa, and South America, and all continents except Australia and the Antarctic since 1977. Cooling is significant during the intervening period (1945–76) for North America, the Arctic, and Africa.
Abstract
This study is an extensive revision of the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) land station temperature database that is used to produce a gridbox dataset of 5° latitude × 5° longitude temperature anomalies. The new database comprises 5159 station records, of which 4167 have enough data for the 1961–90 period to calculate or estimate the necessary averages. Apart from the increase in station numbers compared to the earlier study in 1994, many station records have had their data replaced by newly homogenized series that have been produced by several recent studies. New versions of all the gridded datasets currently available on the CRU Web site (http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk) have been developed. This includes combinations with marine (sea surface temperature anomalies) data over the oceans and versions with adjustment of the variance of individual gridbox series to remove the effects of changing station numbers through time.
Hemispheric and global temperature averages for land areas developed with the new dataset differ slightly from those developed in 1994. Possible reasons for the differences between the new and the earlier analysis and those from the National Climatic Data Center and the Goddard Institute for Space Studies are discussed. Differences are greatest over the Southern Hemisphere and at the beginnings and ends of each time series and relate to gridbox sizes and data availability. The rate of annual warming for global land areas over the 1901–2000 period is estimated by least squares to be 0.07°C decade−1 (significant at better than the 99.9% level). Warming is not continuous but occurs principally over two periods (about 1920–45 and since 1975). Annual temperature series for the seven continents and the Arctic all show significant warming over the twentieth century, with significant (95%) warming for 1920–44 for North America, the Arctic, Africa, and South America, and all continents except Australia and the Antarctic since 1977. Cooling is significant during the intervening period (1945–76) for North America, the Arctic, and Africa.
Abstract
The structure and steadiness of radar-observed supercell thunderstorms are examined in terms of their particular distribution of vorticity. The data confirm that the vorticity vector in supercells points in the direction of the storm-relative velocity vector and that supercell updrafts contain large positive helicity (V·ω). The alignment of vorticity and velocity vectors dictates that low pressure associates not only with vorticity but also with helicity. Accelerating pressure gradients and helicity, both thought important for suppressing small-scale features within supercells, may combine with shear-induced vertical pressure gradient forces to organize and maintain the large-scale persistent background updrafts that characterize supercells.
Rear downdrafts possess weak positive or negative helicity. Thus, the decline of storm circulation may be hastened by turbulent dissipation when the downdraft air eventually mixes into supercell updrafts.
Abstract
The structure and steadiness of radar-observed supercell thunderstorms are examined in terms of their particular distribution of vorticity. The data confirm that the vorticity vector in supercells points in the direction of the storm-relative velocity vector and that supercell updrafts contain large positive helicity (V·ω). The alignment of vorticity and velocity vectors dictates that low pressure associates not only with vorticity but also with helicity. Accelerating pressure gradients and helicity, both thought important for suppressing small-scale features within supercells, may combine with shear-induced vertical pressure gradient forces to organize and maintain the large-scale persistent background updrafts that characterize supercells.
Rear downdrafts possess weak positive or negative helicity. Thus, the decline of storm circulation may be hastened by turbulent dissipation when the downdraft air eventually mixes into supercell updrafts.
Abstract
Kinematic models predict that a coherent structure, such as a jet or an eddy, in an unsteady flow can exchange fluid with its surroundings. The authors consider the significance of this effect for a fully nonlinear, dynamically consistent, barotropic model of a meandering jet. The calculated volume transport associated with this fluid exchange is comparable to that of fluid crossing the Gulf Stream through the detachment of rings. Although the model is barotropic and idealized in other ways, the transport calculations suggest that this exchange mechanism may be important in lateral transport or potential vorticity budget analyses for the Gulf Stream and other oceanic jets. The numerically simulated meandering jet is obtained by allowing a small-amplitude unstable meander to grow until a saturated state occurs. The resulting flow is characterized by finite-amplitude meanders propagating with nearly constant speed, and the results clearly illustrate the stretching and stirring of fluid particles along the edges of the recirculation regions south of the meander crests and north of the troughs. The fluid exchange and resulting transport across boundaries separating regions of predominantly prograde, retrograde, and recirculating motion is quantified using a dynamical systems analysis. The geometrical structures that result from the analysis are shown to be closely correlated with regions of the flow that are susceptible to high potential vorticity dissipation. Moreover, in a related study this analysis has been used to effectively predict the entrainment and detrainment of particles to and from the jet.
Abstract
Kinematic models predict that a coherent structure, such as a jet or an eddy, in an unsteady flow can exchange fluid with its surroundings. The authors consider the significance of this effect for a fully nonlinear, dynamically consistent, barotropic model of a meandering jet. The calculated volume transport associated with this fluid exchange is comparable to that of fluid crossing the Gulf Stream through the detachment of rings. Although the model is barotropic and idealized in other ways, the transport calculations suggest that this exchange mechanism may be important in lateral transport or potential vorticity budget analyses for the Gulf Stream and other oceanic jets. The numerically simulated meandering jet is obtained by allowing a small-amplitude unstable meander to grow until a saturated state occurs. The resulting flow is characterized by finite-amplitude meanders propagating with nearly constant speed, and the results clearly illustrate the stretching and stirring of fluid particles along the edges of the recirculation regions south of the meander crests and north of the troughs. The fluid exchange and resulting transport across boundaries separating regions of predominantly prograde, retrograde, and recirculating motion is quantified using a dynamical systems analysis. The geometrical structures that result from the analysis are shown to be closely correlated with regions of the flow that are susceptible to high potential vorticity dissipation. Moreover, in a related study this analysis has been used to effectively predict the entrainment and detrainment of particles to and from the jet.
Abstract
Nearly 2½ hours of dual-Doppler radar data with high temporal and spatial resolution are used to examine the evolution and morphology of a thunderstorm that evolved from a complex of small cells into a supercell storm. Individual storm cells and updrafts moved east-northeastward, nearly with the mean wind, while the storm complex, which encompassed the individual cells, propagated toward the south–southeast. Cells were first detected at middle levels (5–10 km) on the storm's right flank and dissipated on the left flank. Generally, the storm contained three cells—a forming cell, a mature cell, and a dissipating cell; life stages were apparently dictated by the source of updraft air. During the growth stage, cell inflow had a southerly component. As the cell moved through the storm complex, it started ingesting stable air from the north and soon dissipated.
A storm-environment feedback mechanism of updraft–downdraft interactions, in conjunction with increasing environmental vertical wind shear and buoyancy, is deemed responsible for an increase in the size and intensity of successive cells and updrafts. With time, a large region of background updraft, containing the updrafts of individual cells, formed on the storm's right flank. Unlike the individual cells, which moved nearly parallel to the mean wind and low-level shear vector, the region of background updraft moved to the right of the mean wind and low-level shear vector. It is believed that the formation and rightward motion of the background updraft region led to strong rotation on the storm's right flank. The larger cell and updraft size, with the same center-to-center spacing as at earlier times, made individual cell identification difficult, resulting in a nearly steady-state reflectivity structure.
The data support a growing consensus that a continuum of storm types, rather than a dichotomy, exists.
Abstract
Nearly 2½ hours of dual-Doppler radar data with high temporal and spatial resolution are used to examine the evolution and morphology of a thunderstorm that evolved from a complex of small cells into a supercell storm. Individual storm cells and updrafts moved east-northeastward, nearly with the mean wind, while the storm complex, which encompassed the individual cells, propagated toward the south–southeast. Cells were first detected at middle levels (5–10 km) on the storm's right flank and dissipated on the left flank. Generally, the storm contained three cells—a forming cell, a mature cell, and a dissipating cell; life stages were apparently dictated by the source of updraft air. During the growth stage, cell inflow had a southerly component. As the cell moved through the storm complex, it started ingesting stable air from the north and soon dissipated.
A storm-environment feedback mechanism of updraft–downdraft interactions, in conjunction with increasing environmental vertical wind shear and buoyancy, is deemed responsible for an increase in the size and intensity of successive cells and updrafts. With time, a large region of background updraft, containing the updrafts of individual cells, formed on the storm's right flank. Unlike the individual cells, which moved nearly parallel to the mean wind and low-level shear vector, the region of background updraft moved to the right of the mean wind and low-level shear vector. It is believed that the formation and rightward motion of the background updraft region led to strong rotation on the storm's right flank. The larger cell and updraft size, with the same center-to-center spacing as at earlier times, made individual cell identification difficult, resulting in a nearly steady-state reflectivity structure.
The data support a growing consensus that a continuum of storm types, rather than a dichotomy, exists.
Abstract
The semipermanent subtropical anticyclone over the North Atlantic basin (the “Azores high”) has a major influence on the weather and climate of much of North America, western Europe, and northwestern Africa. The authors develop a climatology of the Azores high by examining its spatial and temporal changes since 1899. Using gridded surface pressure values, anticyclones are identified when the daily pressure is ≥1020 mb and frequencies are tabulated for each half month from 1899 to 1990. Principal components analysis is applied to analyze the anticyclone’s spatial variance structure.
The Azores high is dominated by two spatial modes: a summer pattern, in which high pressure dominates the Atlantic basin, and a winter pattern, in which anticyclones are present over eastern North America and northwestern Africa. Century-long declines in these two modes indicate that there has been a net removal of atmospheric mass over the subtropical Atlantic. Other modes include a meridional versus zonal circulation pattern and omega blocks. Time series of the mean annual principal component scores indicate that meridional flow has been increasing over the Atlantic and that blocking anticyclones have become more prevalent over west-central Europe and less common over the northeastern Atlantic and the British Isles.
Abstract
The semipermanent subtropical anticyclone over the North Atlantic basin (the “Azores high”) has a major influence on the weather and climate of much of North America, western Europe, and northwestern Africa. The authors develop a climatology of the Azores high by examining its spatial and temporal changes since 1899. Using gridded surface pressure values, anticyclones are identified when the daily pressure is ≥1020 mb and frequencies are tabulated for each half month from 1899 to 1990. Principal components analysis is applied to analyze the anticyclone’s spatial variance structure.
The Azores high is dominated by two spatial modes: a summer pattern, in which high pressure dominates the Atlantic basin, and a winter pattern, in which anticyclones are present over eastern North America and northwestern Africa. Century-long declines in these two modes indicate that there has been a net removal of atmospheric mass over the subtropical Atlantic. Other modes include a meridional versus zonal circulation pattern and omega blocks. Time series of the mean annual principal component scores indicate that meridional flow has been increasing over the Atlantic and that blocking anticyclones have become more prevalent over west-central Europe and less common over the northeastern Atlantic and the British Isles.
Abstract
No abstract available.
Abstract
No abstract available.
Abstract
Reconstructed daily mean sea level pressure patterns of the North Atlantic–European region are classified for the period 1850 to 2003 to explore long-term changes of the atmospheric circulation and its impact on long-term temperature variability in the central European region. Commonly used k-means clustering algorithms resulted in classifications of low quality because of methodological deficiencies leading to local optima by chance for complex datasets. In contrast, a newly implemented clustering scheme combining the concepts of simulated annealing and diversified randomization (SANDRA) is able to reduce substantially the influence of chance in the cluster assignment, leading to partitions that are noticeably nearer to the global optimum and more stable. The differences between conventional cluster analysis and the SANDRA scheme are significant for subsequent analyses of single clusters—in particular, for trend analysis. Conventional indices used to determine the appropriate number of clusters failed to provide clear guidance, indicating that no distinct separation between clusters of circulation types exists in the dataset. Therefore, the number of clusters is determined by an external indicator, the so-called dominance criteria for t-mode principal component analysis. Nevertheless, the resulting partitions are stable for certain numbers of clusters and provide meaningful and reproducible clusters. The resulting types of pressure patterns reveal pronounced long-term variability and various significant trends of the time series of seasonal cluster frequency. Tentative estimations of central European temperature changes based solely on seasonal cluster frequencies can explain between 33.9% (summer) and 59.0% (winter) of temperature variance on the seasonal time scale. However, the signs of long-term changes in temperature are correctly reproduced even on multidecadal–centennial time scales. Moreover, linear warming trends are reproduced, implying from one-third up to one-half of the observed temperature increase between 1851/52 and 2003 (except for summer, but with significant trends for spring and autumn), indicating that changes in daily circulation patterns contribute to the observed overall long-term warming in the central European region.
Abstract
Reconstructed daily mean sea level pressure patterns of the North Atlantic–European region are classified for the period 1850 to 2003 to explore long-term changes of the atmospheric circulation and its impact on long-term temperature variability in the central European region. Commonly used k-means clustering algorithms resulted in classifications of low quality because of methodological deficiencies leading to local optima by chance for complex datasets. In contrast, a newly implemented clustering scheme combining the concepts of simulated annealing and diversified randomization (SANDRA) is able to reduce substantially the influence of chance in the cluster assignment, leading to partitions that are noticeably nearer to the global optimum and more stable. The differences between conventional cluster analysis and the SANDRA scheme are significant for subsequent analyses of single clusters—in particular, for trend analysis. Conventional indices used to determine the appropriate number of clusters failed to provide clear guidance, indicating that no distinct separation between clusters of circulation types exists in the dataset. Therefore, the number of clusters is determined by an external indicator, the so-called dominance criteria for t-mode principal component analysis. Nevertheless, the resulting partitions are stable for certain numbers of clusters and provide meaningful and reproducible clusters. The resulting types of pressure patterns reveal pronounced long-term variability and various significant trends of the time series of seasonal cluster frequency. Tentative estimations of central European temperature changes based solely on seasonal cluster frequencies can explain between 33.9% (summer) and 59.0% (winter) of temperature variance on the seasonal time scale. However, the signs of long-term changes in temperature are correctly reproduced even on multidecadal–centennial time scales. Moreover, linear warming trends are reproduced, implying from one-third up to one-half of the observed temperature increase between 1851/52 and 2003 (except for summer, but with significant trends for spring and autumn), indicating that changes in daily circulation patterns contribute to the observed overall long-term warming in the central European region.
Abstract
Instrumental observations from Dejima (Nagasaki), Japan, taken under the responsibility of the Dutch, covering the periods 1819–28, 1845–58, and 1871–78, have been recovered. The Dejima series overlaps by six months the modern Nagasaki Observatory series, which covers 1878–present. The recovered data extend the start of the instrumental Japanese series back from 1872 to 1819, leaving major gaps during 1829–44 and 1859–71.
Abstract
Instrumental observations from Dejima (Nagasaki), Japan, taken under the responsibility of the Dutch, covering the periods 1819–28, 1845–58, and 1871–78, have been recovered. The Dejima series overlaps by six months the modern Nagasaki Observatory series, which covers 1878–present. The recovered data extend the start of the instrumental Japanese series back from 1872 to 1819, leaving major gaps during 1829–44 and 1859–71.
