Abstract

The authors have quality controlled six global datasets of drifting buoy data, made comparisons of 15-m drogued and undrogued buoy observations, and developed a 2D linear regression model of the difference between drogued and undrogued drifter velocity as a function of wind. The data were acquired from 2334 Surface Velocity Program (SVP) drifters, including 1845 SVP drifters after they lost their drogues; 704 AN/WSQ-6 Navy drifter buoys; and 503 First Global GARP Experiment (FGGE) drifter buoys. Meridional and zonal surface wind velocity components from the global synoptic FNMOC model, the global synoptic ECMWF model, and the global synoptic NCEP model were interpolated to naval AN/WSQ-6, WOCE–TOGA buoy, or FGGE buoy positions and date/times in the datasets. Two-day mean buoy drift velocities and positions were computed: 122 101 SVP drifter mean velocities before they lost their drogues and 58 201 SVP drifter mean velocities after they lost their drogues, 21 799 Navy drifter mean velocities, and 42 338 FGGE drifter mean velocities. A regression analysis was made on selected data in selected 2° lat × 8° long bins: U _undrogued = A _undrogued + B _undrogued W _undrogued, U _drogued = A _drogued + B _drogued W _drogued, where U _undrogued, U _drogued was ensemble mean buoy velocity and W was wind velocity, and the real and imaginary parts of these quantities were the zonal and meridional components, respectively. The difference in these complex valued regression coefficients, B _difference = B _undrogued − B _drogued measured the linear response to the wind. Navy and SVPL buoy response to the wind was identical and FGGE buoy response was generally the same; the global weighted mean value of |B _difference| was 0.0088 ± 0.002. The difference in the complex valued y intercept, A _difference = A _undrogued − A _drogued, was nearly always zero within error. The buoy response to wind was also estimated by b = ( U _undrogued − U _drogued)/ W _undrogued, where the velocity difference U _undrogued − U _drogued was calculated from ensemble mean buoy velocities and W was ensemble mean wind velocity. The global-weighted mean value of |b| was 0.0097 ± 0.005. The analysis also found that the phase angle of either B _difference or b, which measures the velocity difference with respect to the wind, was zero within error and not a function of the surface wind or the Coriolis parameter.

Abstract

The Agulhas Current flows poleward along the western boundary of the southeastern Indian Ocean where, at the southernmost latitude of the African continent, it executes a dramatic anticyclonic turn, or retroflection, to the east. Since 1978, a large number of drifting buoys have passed through this eastward-flowing Agulhas Return Current (ARC), or the zonal frontal boundary between subtropical and subpolar waters of the south Indian Ocean. The spatial distribution of the ensemble-averaged near-surface velocity along the ARC axis reveals a series of steady-state meanders of 700-km wavelength and amplitudes that decrease from 170 km in the first meander to 50 km in the following four meanders. Here an analysis of vorticity balance of the meandering ARC speed axis is presented that demonstrates a balance between the β term and advection of curvature vorticity. This balance implies that the ARC axis, or frontal region, is horizontally nondivergent in agreement with the other observations of flow in the surface layers of near-zonal oceanic fronts.

Abstract

The general circulation of the Labrador Sea is studied with a dataset of 53 surface drifters drogued at 15 m and several hydrographic sections done in May 1997. Surface drifters indicate three distinct speed regimes: fast boundary currents, a slower crossover from Greenland to Labrador, and a slow, eddy-dominated flow in the basin interior. Mean Eulerian velocity maps show several recirculation cells located offshore of the main currents, in addition to the cyclonic circulation of the Labrador Sea. Above the northern slope of the basin, the surface drifters have two preferential paths: one between the 1000-m and 2000-m isobaths and the other close to the 3000-m isobath. The vertical shear estimated from CTD data supports the presence of two distinct currents around the basin. One current, more baroclinic, flows between the 1000-m and 2000-m isobaths. The other one, more barotropic, flows above the lower continental slope. The Irminger Sea Water carried by the boundary currents is altered as it travels around the basin. Profiling Autonomous Lagrangian Circulation Explorer (PALACE) floats that followed approximately the Irminger Sea Water in the Labrador Sea show signs of isopycnal mixing between the interior and the boundary current in summer–fall and convection across the path of the Irminger Sea Water in winter–spring.

Abstract

Observations of horizontal velocity from two shipboard acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs), as well as wind, temperature, and salinity observations from a cruise during June–July 2001, are used to compute a simplified mean meridional momentum balance of the North Equatorial Countercurrent (NECC) at 95°W. The terms that are retained in the momentum balance and derived using the measurements are the Coriolis and pressure gradient forces, and the vertical divergence of the turbulent stress. All terms were vertically integrated over the surface turbulent layer. The K-profile parameterization (KPP) prescribed Richardson number (Ri) is used to determine the depth of the turbulent boundary layer h at which the turbulent stress and its gradient vanish. At the time of the cruise, surface drifters and altimeter data show the flow structure of the NECC was complicated by the presence of tropical instability waves to the south and a strong Costa Rica Dome to the north. Nonetheless, a consistent, simplified momentum balance for the surface layer was achieved from the time mean of 19 days of repeat transects along 95°W with a 0.5° latitude resolution. The best agreement between the ageostrophic transport determined from the near-surface cruise measurements and the wind-derived Ekman transport was obtained for an Ri of 0.23 ± 0.05. The corresponding h ranges from ∼55 m at 4°N to ∼30 m within the NECC core (4.5°–6°N) and shoaling to just 15 m at 7°N. In general, the mean ageostrophic and Ekman transports decreased from south to north along the 95°W transect, although within the core of the NECC both transports were relatively strong and steady. This study underscores the importance of the southerly wind-driven eastward Ekman transport in the turbulent boundary layer before the NECC becomes fully developed later in the year through indirect forcing from the wind stress curl.

Abstract

A drifter for observing small spatial and temporal scales of motion in the coastal zone is presented. The drifter uses GPS to determine its position, and the Mobitex terrestrial cellular communications system to transmit the position data in near–real time. This configuration allows position data with order meter accuracy to be sampled every few minutes and transmitted inexpensively. Near-real-time transmission of highly accurate position data enables the drifters to be retrieved and redeployed, further increasing economy. Drifter slip measurements indicate that the drifter follows water to within ∼1–2 cm s⁻¹ during light wind periods. Slip values >1 cm s⁻¹ are aligned with the direction of surface wave propagation and are 180° out of phase, so that the drifter “walks” down waves. Nearly 200 drifter tracks collected off the Santa Barbara, California, coast show comparisons with high-frequency (HF) radar observations of near-surface currents that improve by roughly 50% when the average drifter values are computed from more than 25 observations within a 2-km square HF radar bin. The improvement is the result of drifter resolution of subgrid-scale eddies that are included in time–space-averaged HF radar fields. The average eddy kinetic energy on 2-km space and hour time scales is 25 cm² s⁻², when computed for bins with more than 25 drifter observations. Comparisons with trajectories that are computed from HF radar data show mean separation velocities of 5 and 9 cm s⁻¹ in the along- and across-shore directions, respectively. The drifters resolve scales of motion that are not present in HF radar fields, and are thus complementary to HF radar in coastal ocean observing systems.

Abstract

Presented here are three mean dynamic topography maps derived with different methodologies. The first method combines sea level observed by the high-accuracy satellite radar altimetry with the geoid model of the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), which has recently measured the earth’s gravity with unprecedented spatial resolution and accuracy. The second one synthesizes near-surface velocities from a network of ocean drifters, hydrographic profiles, and ocean winds sorted according to the horizontal scales. In the third method, these global datasets are used in the context of the ocean surface momentum balance. The second and third methods are used to improve accuracy of the dynamic topography on fine space scales poorly resolved in the first method. When they are used to compute a multiyear time-mean global ocean surface circulation on a 0.5° horizontal resolution, both contain very similar, new small-scale midocean current patterns. In particular, extensions of western boundary currents appear narrow and strong despite temporal variability and exhibit persistent meanders and multiple branching. Also, the locations of the velocity concentrations in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current become well defined. Ageostrophic velocities reveal convergent zones in each subtropical basin. These maps present a new context in which to view the continued ocean monitoring with in situ instruments and satellites.

Abstract

A strong, isolated October storm generated 0.35–0.7 m s⁻¹ inertia] frequency currents in the 40-m deep mixed layer of a 300 km×300 km region of the northeast Pacific Ocean. The authors describe the evolution of these currents and the background flow in which they evolve for nearly a month following the storm. Instruments included CTD profilers, 36 surface drifters, an array of 7 moorings, and air-deployed velocity profilers. The authors then test whether the theory of linear internal waves propagating in a homogeneous ocean can explain the observed evolution of the inertial frequency currents.

The subinertial frequency flow is weak, with typical currents of 5 cm s⁻¹, and steady over the period of interest. The storm generates inertial frequency currents in and somewhat below the mixed layer with a horizontal scale much larger than the Rossby radius of deformation, reflecting the large-scale and rapid translation speed of the storm. This scale is too large for significant linear propagation of the inertial currents to occur. It steadily decreases owing to the latitudinal variation in f, that is, β, until after about 10 days it becomes sufficiently small for wave propagation to occur. Inertial energy then spreads downward from the mixed layer, decreasing the mixed layer inertial energy and increasing the inertial energy below the mixed layer. A strong maximum in inertial energy is formed at 100 m ("the Beam"). By 21 days after the storm. both mixed layer inertial energy and inertial frequency shear maximum just below the mixed layer have been reduced to background levels. The total depth-average inertial energy decreases by about 40% during this period.

Linear internal wave theory can only partially explain the observed evolution of the inertial frequency currents. The decrease in horizontal wavelength is accurately predicted as due to the β effect. The decrease in depth-average inertial energy is explained by southward propagation of the lowest few modes. The superinertial frequency and clockwise rotation of phase with depth are qualitatively consistent with linear theory. However, linear theory underpredicts the initial rate at which inertial energy is lost from the mixed layer by 20%–50% and cannot explain the decrease of mixed layer energy and shear to background levels in 21 days.

The Coupled Boundary Layer Air–Sea Transfer (CBLAST) field program, conducted from 2002 to 2004, has provided a wealth of new air–sea interaction observations in hurricanes. The wind speed range for which turbulent momentum and moisture exchange coefficients have been derived based upon direct flux measurements has been extended by 30% and 60%, respectively, from airborne observations in Hurricanes Fabian and Isabel in 2003. The drag coefficient (C _D ) values derived from CBLAST momentum flux measurements show C _D becoming invariant with wind speed near a 23 m s⁻¹ threshold rather than a hurricane-force threshold near 33 m s⁻¹ . Values above 23 m s⁻¹ are lower than previous open-ocean measurements.

The Dalton number estimates (C _E ) derived from CBLAST moisture flux measurements are shown to be invariant with wind speeds up to 30 m s ⁻¹ which is in approximate agreement with previous measurements at lower winds. These observations imply a C _E /C _D ratio of approximately 0.7, suggesting that additional energy sources are necessary for hurricanes to achieve their maximum potential intensity. One such additional mechanism for augmented moisture flux in the boundary layer might be “roll vortex” or linear coherent features, observed by CBLAST 2002 measurements to have wavelengths of 0.9–1.2 km. Linear features of the same wavelength range were observed in nearly concurrent RADARSAT Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery.

As a complement to the aircraft measurement program, arrays of drifting buoys and subsurface floats were successfully deployed ahead of Hurricanes Fabian (2003) and Frances (2004) [16 (6) and 38 (14) drifters (floats), respectively, in the two storms]. An unprecedented set of observations was obtained, providing a four-dimensional view of the ocean response to a hurricane for the first time ever. Two types of surface drifters and three types of floats provided observations of surface and subsurface oceanic currents, temperature, salinity, gas exchange, bubble concentrations, and surface wave spectra to a depth of 200 m on a continuous basis before, during, and after storm passage, as well as surface atmospheric observations of wind speed (via acoustic hydrophone) and direction, rain rate, and pressure. Float observations in Frances (2004) indicated a deepening of the mixed layer from 40 to 120 m in approximately 8 h, with a corresponding decrease in SST in the right-rear quadrant of 3.2°C in 11 h, roughly one-third of an inertial period. Strong inertial currents with a peak amplitude of 1.5 m s⁻¹ were observed. Vertical structure showed that the critical Richardson number was reached sporadically during the mixed-layer deepening event, suggesting shear-induced mixing as a prominent mechanism during storm passage. Peak significant waves of 11 m were observed from the floats to complement the aircraft-measured directional wave spectra.