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Abstract
Geopotential height fields, based on high vertical resolution radiometer measurements, have been used to infer the circulation in the stratosphere from 100 to 1 mb, in the Northern Hemisphere, on a daily basis during February and March of 1979. Initial calculations were based on geostrophy in the traditional way. In addition to demonstrating the benefits of high vertical resolution, these calculations show that for the disturbed conditions present at this time, many of the terms in the momentum equation which were neglected would have made nonnegligible contributions to the balance of terms. In particular, the convergence of meridional wave flux can affect the zonally averaged meridional component of the momentum budget. Ageostrophic terms can affect the zonally varying part of the momentum budgets as well, although an accurate assessment of their importance is complicated by nonlinear processes. These and other results suggest that studies using diagnostically derived winds should include a scale analysis of the momentum budget to verify that the approximations used are valid. Revised estimates have been made of both the zonally averaged and zonally varying components of the wind that include important ageostrophic contributions.
Abstract
Geopotential height fields, based on high vertical resolution radiometer measurements, have been used to infer the circulation in the stratosphere from 100 to 1 mb, in the Northern Hemisphere, on a daily basis during February and March of 1979. Initial calculations were based on geostrophy in the traditional way. In addition to demonstrating the benefits of high vertical resolution, these calculations show that for the disturbed conditions present at this time, many of the terms in the momentum equation which were neglected would have made nonnegligible contributions to the balance of terms. In particular, the convergence of meridional wave flux can affect the zonally averaged meridional component of the momentum budget. Ageostrophic terms can affect the zonally varying part of the momentum budgets as well, although an accurate assessment of their importance is complicated by nonlinear processes. These and other results suggest that studies using diagnostically derived winds should include a scale analysis of the momentum budget to verify that the approximations used are valid. Revised estimates have been made of both the zonally averaged and zonally varying components of the wind that include important ageostrophic contributions.
Abstract
A diagnostic, quasi-linear model has been developed which uses observed solar-related temperatures and a specified zonal mean circulation and thermal structure to find the solar-related circulation above the clouds of Venus. Because there are no observations of the mean circulation above the clouds, it has been calculated using an independent model. Although the model-derived, solar-related circulation depends on the mean flow to a much greater degree than is the case for terrestrial tides, and although there is uncertainty in this mean flow, several important conclusions have been drawn concerning the solar-related circulation and thermal structure. Given that the solar forcing is likely to have a maximum in equatorial regions. there is an anomalously large response in the polar regions. It is primarily because of this unusual polar thermal structure that the model requires some process, such as dissipation, to act as an important sink for momentum. In the model, dissipation is specified as a Rayleigh friction whose coefficient is an unknown, free parameter. If such a formalism is correct, it is concluded that either the dissipation is extremely efficient by terrestrial standards and the solar-related circulation is small, or the dissipation is similar to that of the earth and the circulation is likely to be large enough to have an impact on the mean circulation.
Abstract
A diagnostic, quasi-linear model has been developed which uses observed solar-related temperatures and a specified zonal mean circulation and thermal structure to find the solar-related circulation above the clouds of Venus. Because there are no observations of the mean circulation above the clouds, it has been calculated using an independent model. Although the model-derived, solar-related circulation depends on the mean flow to a much greater degree than is the case for terrestrial tides, and although there is uncertainty in this mean flow, several important conclusions have been drawn concerning the solar-related circulation and thermal structure. Given that the solar forcing is likely to have a maximum in equatorial regions. there is an anomalously large response in the polar regions. It is primarily because of this unusual polar thermal structure that the model requires some process, such as dissipation, to act as an important sink for momentum. In the model, dissipation is specified as a Rayleigh friction whose coefficient is an unknown, free parameter. If such a formalism is correct, it is concluded that either the dissipation is extremely efficient by terrestrial standards and the solar-related circulation is small, or the dissipation is similar to that of the earth and the circulation is likely to be large enough to have an impact on the mean circulation.
Abstract
Data from the Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere (LIMS) have been used to define zonally averaged basic-state temperature and zonal wind fields in the middle atmosphere for several periods during the winter of 1978–79. This basic state has been used to calculate the phase speeds, growth rates, and spatial structures of unstable modes using a linear, quasigeostrophic model. These results have been compared with temperature and ozone variance amplitudes from a spectral analysis of the same LIMS data. The comparison indicates that there is a close match between phase speeds for the most rapidly growing modes predicted by the model and phase speeds for statistically significant temperature and ozone variances. Both calculated and observed modes tend to be limited in latitudinal extent to a few tens of degrees and in vertical extent to about 10 km. These modes also tend to be nondispersive. Examples are given for the Southern Hemisphere near 0.25 mb (60 km) and for low latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere near 15 mb (30 km).
Abstract
Data from the Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere (LIMS) have been used to define zonally averaged basic-state temperature and zonal wind fields in the middle atmosphere for several periods during the winter of 1978–79. This basic state has been used to calculate the phase speeds, growth rates, and spatial structures of unstable modes using a linear, quasigeostrophic model. These results have been compared with temperature and ozone variance amplitudes from a spectral analysis of the same LIMS data. The comparison indicates that there is a close match between phase speeds for the most rapidly growing modes predicted by the model and phase speeds for statistically significant temperature and ozone variances. Both calculated and observed modes tend to be limited in latitudinal extent to a few tens of degrees and in vertical extent to about 10 km. These modes also tend to be nondispersive. Examples are given for the Southern Hemisphere near 0.25 mb (60 km) and for low latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere near 15 mb (30 km).
Abstract
Based on the success of several 2-D (latitude, longitude) linear barotropic instability models at matching some of the observed characteristics of the cloud level, polar region of the Venus atmosphere, a more realistic, linear, 3-D (height, latitude and longitude) model has been developed to further test the hypothesis that the observed features can be described by linear instability theory. The approach taken is to vary the model input parameters to see whether it is possible to produce modes that resemble the observations of wave activity and to compare those input parameters with other observations of the mean state.
Sensitivity studies show that in addition to a well-documented dependence on the mean zonal wind, the growth and propagation of unstable modes depends on the latitude variation of the mean temperature (and hence static stability). These studies have lead to the specification of a model basic state wind and temperature field that produces modes which are matched to observations of spatial structure, preferred wavenumber and phase speed of the polar disturbances. Wavenumber 2 is found to have the shortest growth time and unlike the 2-D results wavenunibers 1–3 share a nearly common period of about 3 days. The derived basic state has a temperature field that is quite similar to Pioneer Venus observations; however, in some regions the model basic state wind field departs from cyclostrophic values based on temperature observations.
Abstract
Based on the success of several 2-D (latitude, longitude) linear barotropic instability models at matching some of the observed characteristics of the cloud level, polar region of the Venus atmosphere, a more realistic, linear, 3-D (height, latitude and longitude) model has been developed to further test the hypothesis that the observed features can be described by linear instability theory. The approach taken is to vary the model input parameters to see whether it is possible to produce modes that resemble the observations of wave activity and to compare those input parameters with other observations of the mean state.
Sensitivity studies show that in addition to a well-documented dependence on the mean zonal wind, the growth and propagation of unstable modes depends on the latitude variation of the mean temperature (and hence static stability). These studies have lead to the specification of a model basic state wind and temperature field that produces modes which are matched to observations of spatial structure, preferred wavenumber and phase speed of the polar disturbances. Wavenumber 2 is found to have the shortest growth time and unlike the 2-D results wavenunibers 1–3 share a nearly common period of about 3 days. The derived basic state has a temperature field that is quite similar to Pioneer Venus observations; however, in some regions the model basic state wind field departs from cyclostrophic values based on temperature observations.
Abstract
Infrared and radio observations of the upper cloud region of Venus indicate that the north polar region contains Features of large thermal contrast. A cold collar, encompassing a region of temperature inversions, lies between latitudes of ∼65 and 75°C, and a pair of warm features, separated by ∼180° of longitude and centered near 80° latitude, rotate about the pole with a period of ∼2.9 days. It is shown that the cold temperatures associated with the inversions lead to an enhancement in the mean zonal wind in a localized area near the pole, and that this enhancement makes the mean flow barotropically unstable. Since data for this region are limited a model for the thermal structure has been used for calculating growth times and phase periods of the unstable modes. Choosing model parameters to agree as closely as possible with available data, it has been determined that the rotating warm features are likely to be manifestations of barotropically unstable waves.
Abstract
Infrared and radio observations of the upper cloud region of Venus indicate that the north polar region contains Features of large thermal contrast. A cold collar, encompassing a region of temperature inversions, lies between latitudes of ∼65 and 75°C, and a pair of warm features, separated by ∼180° of longitude and centered near 80° latitude, rotate about the pole with a period of ∼2.9 days. It is shown that the cold temperatures associated with the inversions lead to an enhancement in the mean zonal wind in a localized area near the pole, and that this enhancement makes the mean flow barotropically unstable. Since data for this region are limited a model for the thermal structure has been used for calculating growth times and phase periods of the unstable modes. Choosing model parameters to agree as closely as possible with available data, it has been determined that the rotating warm features are likely to be manifestations of barotropically unstable waves.
Abstract
The atmospheric boundary layer (BL) in tropical cyclones (TCs) connects deep convection within rainbands and the eyewall to the air–sea interface. Although the importance of the BL in TCs has been widely recognized in recent studies, how physical processes affect TC structure and intensity are still not well understood. This study focuses on a particular physical mechanism through which a TC-induced upper-ocean cooling within the core circulation of the TC can affect the BL and TC structure. A coupled atmosphere–ocean model forecast of Typhoon Choi-Wan (2009) is used to better understand the physical processes of air–sea interaction in TCs. A persistent stable boundary layer (SBL) is found to form over the cold wake within the TC’s right-rear quadrant, which influences TC structure by suppressing convection in rainbands downstream of the cold wake and enhancing the BL inflow into the inner core by increasing inflow angles over strong SST and pressure gradients. Tracer and trajectory analyses show that the air in the SBL stays in the BL longer and gains extra energy from surface heat and moisture fluxes. The enhanced inflow helps transport air in the SBL into the eyewall. In contrast, in the absence of a TC-induced cold wake and an SBL in an uncoupled atmosphere model forecast, the air in the right-rear quadrant within the BL tends to rise into local rainbands. The SBL formed over the cold wake in the coupled model seems to be a key feature that enhances the transport of high energy air into the TC inner core and may increase the storm efficiency.
Abstract
The atmospheric boundary layer (BL) in tropical cyclones (TCs) connects deep convection within rainbands and the eyewall to the air–sea interface. Although the importance of the BL in TCs has been widely recognized in recent studies, how physical processes affect TC structure and intensity are still not well understood. This study focuses on a particular physical mechanism through which a TC-induced upper-ocean cooling within the core circulation of the TC can affect the BL and TC structure. A coupled atmosphere–ocean model forecast of Typhoon Choi-Wan (2009) is used to better understand the physical processes of air–sea interaction in TCs. A persistent stable boundary layer (SBL) is found to form over the cold wake within the TC’s right-rear quadrant, which influences TC structure by suppressing convection in rainbands downstream of the cold wake and enhancing the BL inflow into the inner core by increasing inflow angles over strong SST and pressure gradients. Tracer and trajectory analyses show that the air in the SBL stays in the BL longer and gains extra energy from surface heat and moisture fluxes. The enhanced inflow helps transport air in the SBL into the eyewall. In contrast, in the absence of a TC-induced cold wake and an SBL in an uncoupled atmosphere model forecast, the air in the right-rear quadrant within the BL tends to rise into local rainbands. The SBL formed over the cold wake in the coupled model seems to be a key feature that enhances the transport of high energy air into the TC inner core and may increase the storm efficiency.
Abstract
A dynamic turbulent boundary-layer model in the neutral atmosphere is constructed, using a dynamic turbulent equation of the eddy viscosity coefficient for momentum derived from the relationship among the turbulent dissipation rate, the turbulent kinetic energy and the eddy viscosity coefficient, with aid of the turbulent second-order closure scheme. A finite-element technique was used for the numerical integration. In preliminary results, the behavior of the neutral planetary boundary layer agrees well with the available data and with the existing elaborate turbulent models, using a finite-difference scheme. The proposed dynamic formulation of the eddy viscosity coefficient for momentum is particularly attractive and can provide a viable alternative approach to study atmospheric turbulence, diffusion and air pollution.
Abstract
A dynamic turbulent boundary-layer model in the neutral atmosphere is constructed, using a dynamic turbulent equation of the eddy viscosity coefficient for momentum derived from the relationship among the turbulent dissipation rate, the turbulent kinetic energy and the eddy viscosity coefficient, with aid of the turbulent second-order closure scheme. A finite-element technique was used for the numerical integration. In preliminary results, the behavior of the neutral planetary boundary layer agrees well with the available data and with the existing elaborate turbulent models, using a finite-difference scheme. The proposed dynamic formulation of the eddy viscosity coefficient for momentum is particularly attractive and can provide a viable alternative approach to study atmospheric turbulence, diffusion and air pollution.
Abstract
It is widely accepted that air–sea interaction is one of the key factors in controlling tropical cyclone (TC) intensity. However, the physical mechanisms for connecting the upper ocean and air–sea interface with storm structure through the atmospheric boundary layer in TCs are not well understood. This study investigates the air–sea coupling processes using a fully coupled atmosphere–wave–ocean model, especially the coupling-induced asymmetry in surface winds, sea surface temperature, air–sea fluxes, and their impacts on the structure of the hurricane boundary layer (HBL). Numerical experiments of Hurricane Frances (2004) with and without coupling to an ocean model and/or a surface wave model are used to examine the impacts of the ocean and wave coupling, respectively. Model results are compared with the airborne dropsonde and surface wind measurements on board the NOAA WP-3D aircraft. The atmosphere–ocean coupling reduces the mixed-layer depth in the rear-right quadrant due to storm-induced ocean cooling, whereas the wind–wave coupling enhances boundary inflow outside the radius of maximum wind. Storm motion and deep tropospheric inflow create a significant front-to-back asymmetry in the depth of the inflow layer. These results are consistent with the dropsonde observations. The azimuthally averaged inflow layer and the mixed layer, as documented in previous studies, are not representative of the asymmetric HBL. The complex, three-dimensional asymmetric structure in both thermodynamic and dynamic properties of the HBL indicates that it would be difficult to parameterize the effects of air–sea coupling without a fully coupled model.
Abstract
It is widely accepted that air–sea interaction is one of the key factors in controlling tropical cyclone (TC) intensity. However, the physical mechanisms for connecting the upper ocean and air–sea interface with storm structure through the atmospheric boundary layer in TCs are not well understood. This study investigates the air–sea coupling processes using a fully coupled atmosphere–wave–ocean model, especially the coupling-induced asymmetry in surface winds, sea surface temperature, air–sea fluxes, and their impacts on the structure of the hurricane boundary layer (HBL). Numerical experiments of Hurricane Frances (2004) with and without coupling to an ocean model and/or a surface wave model are used to examine the impacts of the ocean and wave coupling, respectively. Model results are compared with the airborne dropsonde and surface wind measurements on board the NOAA WP-3D aircraft. The atmosphere–ocean coupling reduces the mixed-layer depth in the rear-right quadrant due to storm-induced ocean cooling, whereas the wind–wave coupling enhances boundary inflow outside the radius of maximum wind. Storm motion and deep tropospheric inflow create a significant front-to-back asymmetry in the depth of the inflow layer. These results are consistent with the dropsonde observations. The azimuthally averaged inflow layer and the mixed layer, as documented in previous studies, are not representative of the asymmetric HBL. The complex, three-dimensional asymmetric structure in both thermodynamic and dynamic properties of the HBL indicates that it would be difficult to parameterize the effects of air–sea coupling without a fully coupled model.
