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Abstract
A method of analyzing radar data is developed and applied to determine whether the X-band radar reflectivity evolution of clouds observed during summertime on the northeast Florida coast during the Small Cumulus Microphysics Study (SCMS) shows distinct differences in precipitation development that can be associated with the clouds’ maritime or continental characteristics. For this study, the entire National Center for Atmospheric Research CP2 radar dataset from SCMS was examined, and 38 clouds were used. For these clouds the evolution in X-band radar reflectivity, from the clouds’ earliest detection through precipitation, was clearly documented and met specific requirements concerning the clouds’ location relative to the coastline and direction of movement. Since cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and giant and ultragiant nuclei (GN) measurements were not available for the specific clouds used in this study, proxies were used to partition the clouds into four groups based on the cloud location and direction of movement. Specifically, it was assumed that clouds forming over the ocean during onshore flow had maritime characteristics (group 1: low CCN, high GN), clouds forming over land during onshore flow would have modified maritime characteristics (group 2: high CCN, high GN), clouds forming over land during offshore flow would have continental characteristics (group 3: high CCN, low GN), and clouds forming over the ocean during offshore flow would have modified continental characteristics (group 4: high CCN, high GN). These assumptions are based on past measurements presented by Sax and Hudson. Then, these populations were statistically compared using the nonparametric multiresponse permutation procedure developed by Mielke et al. A comparison of groups 1 and 2 provided a test of the role of CCN concentrations in precipitation development in these cloud populations. A comparison of groups 3 and 4 provided a test of the role of GN concentrations in precipitation development in these cloud populations. The two cloud populations that were disjoint at a statistically significant level were groups 1 and 2. For these groups, the analysis showed that the median characteristic total water content of the truly maritime clouds (group 1) was about half that of the modified maritime clouds (group 2) at the time of precipitation formation. The characteristic time to precipitation formation was about 60% smaller for the truly maritime clouds. Thus, the characteristic reflectivity threshold for precipitation development was reached at a much lower altitude above cloud base in a much faster time in the truly maritime clouds. This result supports the conclusions of Hudson and Yum that precipitation development in the SCMS clouds was primarily controlled by CCN concentrations rather than GN concentrations.
Abstract
A method of analyzing radar data is developed and applied to determine whether the X-band radar reflectivity evolution of clouds observed during summertime on the northeast Florida coast during the Small Cumulus Microphysics Study (SCMS) shows distinct differences in precipitation development that can be associated with the clouds’ maritime or continental characteristics. For this study, the entire National Center for Atmospheric Research CP2 radar dataset from SCMS was examined, and 38 clouds were used. For these clouds the evolution in X-band radar reflectivity, from the clouds’ earliest detection through precipitation, was clearly documented and met specific requirements concerning the clouds’ location relative to the coastline and direction of movement. Since cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and giant and ultragiant nuclei (GN) measurements were not available for the specific clouds used in this study, proxies were used to partition the clouds into four groups based on the cloud location and direction of movement. Specifically, it was assumed that clouds forming over the ocean during onshore flow had maritime characteristics (group 1: low CCN, high GN), clouds forming over land during onshore flow would have modified maritime characteristics (group 2: high CCN, high GN), clouds forming over land during offshore flow would have continental characteristics (group 3: high CCN, low GN), and clouds forming over the ocean during offshore flow would have modified continental characteristics (group 4: high CCN, high GN). These assumptions are based on past measurements presented by Sax and Hudson. Then, these populations were statistically compared using the nonparametric multiresponse permutation procedure developed by Mielke et al. A comparison of groups 1 and 2 provided a test of the role of CCN concentrations in precipitation development in these cloud populations. A comparison of groups 3 and 4 provided a test of the role of GN concentrations in precipitation development in these cloud populations. The two cloud populations that were disjoint at a statistically significant level were groups 1 and 2. For these groups, the analysis showed that the median characteristic total water content of the truly maritime clouds (group 1) was about half that of the modified maritime clouds (group 2) at the time of precipitation formation. The characteristic time to precipitation formation was about 60% smaller for the truly maritime clouds. Thus, the characteristic reflectivity threshold for precipitation development was reached at a much lower altitude above cloud base in a much faster time in the truly maritime clouds. This result supports the conclusions of Hudson and Yum that precipitation development in the SCMS clouds was primarily controlled by CCN concentrations rather than GN concentrations.
Abstract
Dual-polarization radar measurements and in situ measurements of supercooled liquid water and ice particles within orographic cloud systems are used to develop probabilistic criteria for identifying mixed-phase versus ice-phase regions of sub-0°C clouds. The motivation for this study is the development of quantitative criteria for identification of potential aircraft icing conditions in clouds using polarization radar. The measurements were obtained during the Mesoscale Alpine Programme (MAP) with the National Center for Atmospheric Research S-band dual-polarization Doppler radar (S-Pol) and Electra aircraft. The comparison of the radar and aircraft measurements required the development of an automated algorithm to match radar and aircraft observations in time and space. This algorithm is described, and evaluations are presented to verify its accuracy. Three polarization radar parameters, the radar reflectivity factor at horizontal polarization (ZH), the differential reflectivity (Z DR), and the specific differential phase (K DP), are first separately shown to be statistically distinguishable between conditions in mixed- and ice-phase clouds, even when an estimate of measurement uncertainty is included. Probability distributions for discrimination of mixed-phase versus ice-phase clouds are then developed using the matched radar and aircraft measurements. The probability distributions correspond well to a basic physical understanding of ice particle growth by riming and vapor deposition, both of which may occur in mixed-phase conditions. To the extent that the probability distributions derived for the MAP orographic clouds can be applied to other cloud systems, they provide a simple tool for warning aircraft of the likelihood that supercooled water may be encountered in regions of clouds.
Abstract
Dual-polarization radar measurements and in situ measurements of supercooled liquid water and ice particles within orographic cloud systems are used to develop probabilistic criteria for identifying mixed-phase versus ice-phase regions of sub-0°C clouds. The motivation for this study is the development of quantitative criteria for identification of potential aircraft icing conditions in clouds using polarization radar. The measurements were obtained during the Mesoscale Alpine Programme (MAP) with the National Center for Atmospheric Research S-band dual-polarization Doppler radar (S-Pol) and Electra aircraft. The comparison of the radar and aircraft measurements required the development of an automated algorithm to match radar and aircraft observations in time and space. This algorithm is described, and evaluations are presented to verify its accuracy. Three polarization radar parameters, the radar reflectivity factor at horizontal polarization (ZH), the differential reflectivity (Z DR), and the specific differential phase (K DP), are first separately shown to be statistically distinguishable between conditions in mixed- and ice-phase clouds, even when an estimate of measurement uncertainty is included. Probability distributions for discrimination of mixed-phase versus ice-phase clouds are then developed using the matched radar and aircraft measurements. The probability distributions correspond well to a basic physical understanding of ice particle growth by riming and vapor deposition, both of which may occur in mixed-phase conditions. To the extent that the probability distributions derived for the MAP orographic clouds can be applied to other cloud systems, they provide a simple tool for warning aircraft of the likelihood that supercooled water may be encountered in regions of clouds.
Abstract
Shallow marine trade wind cumuli are one of the most prevalent cloud types in the tropical atmosphere. Understanding how precipitation forms within these clouds is necessary to advance our knowledge concerning their role in climate. This paper presents a statistical analysis of the characteristic heights and times at which precipitation in trade wind clouds passes through distinct stages in its evolution as defined by the equivalent radar reflectivity factor at horizontal polarization ZH, the differential reflectivity Z DR, and the spatial correlation between and averages of these variables. The data were obtained during the Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO) field campaign by the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) S-band dual-polarization (S-Pol) Doppler radar, the National Science Foundation (NSF)–NCAR C130 aircraft, and soundings launched near the radar. The data consisted of 76 trade cumuli that were tracked from early echo development through rainout on six days during RICO. Trade wind clouds used in the statistical analyses were segregated based on giant condensation nuclei (GCN) measurements made during low-level aircraft flight legs on the six days.
This study found that the rate of precipitation formation in shallow marine cumulus was unrelated to the GCN concentration in the ambient environment. Instead, the rate at which precipitation developed in the clouds appeared to be related to the mesoscale forcing as suggested by the cloud organization. Although GCN had no influence on the rate of precipitation development, the data suggest that they do contribute to a modification of the rain drop size distribution within the clouds. With very few exceptions, high threshold values of Z DR were found well above cloud base on days with high GCN concentrations. On the days that were exceptions, these threshold values were almost always achieved near cloud base.
Abstract
Shallow marine trade wind cumuli are one of the most prevalent cloud types in the tropical atmosphere. Understanding how precipitation forms within these clouds is necessary to advance our knowledge concerning their role in climate. This paper presents a statistical analysis of the characteristic heights and times at which precipitation in trade wind clouds passes through distinct stages in its evolution as defined by the equivalent radar reflectivity factor at horizontal polarization ZH, the differential reflectivity Z DR, and the spatial correlation between and averages of these variables. The data were obtained during the Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO) field campaign by the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) S-band dual-polarization (S-Pol) Doppler radar, the National Science Foundation (NSF)–NCAR C130 aircraft, and soundings launched near the radar. The data consisted of 76 trade cumuli that were tracked from early echo development through rainout on six days during RICO. Trade wind clouds used in the statistical analyses were segregated based on giant condensation nuclei (GCN) measurements made during low-level aircraft flight legs on the six days.
This study found that the rate of precipitation formation in shallow marine cumulus was unrelated to the GCN concentration in the ambient environment. Instead, the rate at which precipitation developed in the clouds appeared to be related to the mesoscale forcing as suggested by the cloud organization. Although GCN had no influence on the rate of precipitation development, the data suggest that they do contribute to a modification of the rain drop size distribution within the clouds. With very few exceptions, high threshold values of Z DR were found well above cloud base on days with high GCN concentrations. On the days that were exceptions, these threshold values were almost always achieved near cloud base.
Abstract
The Finnish Meteorological Institute and Vaisala have established a mesoscale weather observational network in southern Finland. The Helsinki Testbed is an open research and quasi-operational program designed to provide new information on observing systems and strategies, mesoscale weather phenomena, urban and regional modeling, and end-user applications in a high-latitude (~60°N) coastal environment. The Helsinki Testbed and related programs feature several components: observing system design and implementation, small-scale data assimilation, nowcasting and short-range numerical weather prediction, public service, and commercial development of applications. Specifically, the observing instrumentation focuses on meteorological observations of meso-gamma-scale phenomena that are often too small to be detected adequately by traditional observing networks. In particular, more than 40 telecommunication masts (40 that are 120 m high and one that is 300 m high) are instrumented at multiple heights. Other instrumentation includes one operational radio sounding (and occasional supplemental ones), ceilometers, aerosol-particle and trace-gas instrumentation on an urban flux-measurement tower, a wind profiler, and four Doppler weather radars, three of which have dual-polarimetric capability. The Helsinki Testbed supports the development and testing of new observational instruments, systems, and methods during coordinated field experiments, such as the NASA Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM). Currently, the Helsinki Testbed Web site typically receives more than 450,000 weekly visits, and more than 600 users have registered to use historical data records. This article discusses the three different phases of development and associated activities of the Helsinki Testbed from network development and observational campaigns, development of the local analysis and prediction system, and testing of applications for commercial services. Finally, the Helsinki Testbed is evaluated based on previously published criteria, indicating both successes and shortcomings of this approach.
Abstract
The Finnish Meteorological Institute and Vaisala have established a mesoscale weather observational network in southern Finland. The Helsinki Testbed is an open research and quasi-operational program designed to provide new information on observing systems and strategies, mesoscale weather phenomena, urban and regional modeling, and end-user applications in a high-latitude (~60°N) coastal environment. The Helsinki Testbed and related programs feature several components: observing system design and implementation, small-scale data assimilation, nowcasting and short-range numerical weather prediction, public service, and commercial development of applications. Specifically, the observing instrumentation focuses on meteorological observations of meso-gamma-scale phenomena that are often too small to be detected adequately by traditional observing networks. In particular, more than 40 telecommunication masts (40 that are 120 m high and one that is 300 m high) are instrumented at multiple heights. Other instrumentation includes one operational radio sounding (and occasional supplemental ones), ceilometers, aerosol-particle and trace-gas instrumentation on an urban flux-measurement tower, a wind profiler, and four Doppler weather radars, three of which have dual-polarimetric capability. The Helsinki Testbed supports the development and testing of new observational instruments, systems, and methods during coordinated field experiments, such as the NASA Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM). Currently, the Helsinki Testbed Web site typically receives more than 450,000 weekly visits, and more than 600 users have registered to use historical data records. This article discusses the three different phases of development and associated activities of the Helsinki Testbed from network development and observational campaigns, development of the local analysis and prediction system, and testing of applications for commercial services. Finally, the Helsinki Testbed is evaluated based on previously published criteria, indicating both successes and shortcomings of this approach.
The Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO) field campaign carried out a wide array of educational activities, including a major first in a field project—a complete mission, including research flights, planned and executed entirely by students. This article describes the educational opportunities provided to the 24 graduate and 9 undergraduate students who participated in RICO.
The Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO) field campaign carried out a wide array of educational activities, including a major first in a field project—a complete mission, including research flights, planned and executed entirely by students. This article describes the educational opportunities provided to the 24 graduate and 9 undergraduate students who participated in RICO.
