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- Author or Editor: Steven P. Oncley x
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Abstract
A method is proposed to measure scalar fluxes using conditional sampling. Only the mean concentrations of updraft and downdraft samples, the standard deviation of the vertical velocity, and a coefficient of proportionality, b, need to be known. The method has been simulated from existing time series of the vertical wind component, temperature, and humidity in the surface layer. It is found that b has an almost constant value of 0.6 for both scalars and over a wide stability range. This result encourages application to other scalars and suggests that the method may be used beyond the atmospheric surface layer in the lower part of the planetary boundary layer.
Abstract
A method is proposed to measure scalar fluxes using conditional sampling. Only the mean concentrations of updraft and downdraft samples, the standard deviation of the vertical velocity, and a coefficient of proportionality, b, need to be known. The method has been simulated from existing time series of the vertical wind component, temperature, and humidity in the surface layer. It is found that b has an almost constant value of 0.6 for both scalars and over a wide stability range. This result encourages application to other scalars and suggests that the method may be used beyond the atmospheric surface layer in the lower part of the planetary boundary layer.
Abstract
Direct observations of surface fluxes of momentum, sensible, and latent heat from towers and aircraft are compared to output from the NCAR-Penn State Mesoscale Model MM5. The model flux parameterization is seen to work well if appropriate values of the roughness length z 0 and moisture availability parameter M are specified. Although the surface fluxes are quite sensitive to these parameters, as found by earlier investigators, it is not obvious how to select a value for M a priori. An initial estimate of M should take into account the rainfall and cloudiness history and probably other factors. Because temperature and humidity near the surface are quite sensitive to the fluxes, it is suggested that the difference between observed and calculated air temperatures could be used iteratively to guide the choice of M.
Abstract
Direct observations of surface fluxes of momentum, sensible, and latent heat from towers and aircraft are compared to output from the NCAR-Penn State Mesoscale Model MM5. The model flux parameterization is seen to work well if appropriate values of the roughness length z 0 and moisture availability parameter M are specified. Although the surface fluxes are quite sensitive to these parameters, as found by earlier investigators, it is not obvious how to select a value for M a priori. An initial estimate of M should take into account the rainfall and cloudiness history and probably other factors. Because temperature and humidity near the surface are quite sensitive to the fluxes, it is suggested that the difference between observed and calculated air temperatures could be used iteratively to guide the choice of M.
Abstract
Vortices in the atmospheric surface layer are characterized using observations at unprecedented resolution from a fixed array of 31 turbulence sensors. During the day, these vortices likely are dust devils, though no visual observations are available for confirmation. At night, hairpin vortices appear to have been observed. The structure and dynamics of several types of vortices are described and related to other vortex investigations, including tornadoes and hurricanes.
Abstract
Vortices in the atmospheric surface layer are characterized using observations at unprecedented resolution from a fixed array of 31 turbulence sensors. During the day, these vortices likely are dust devils, though no visual observations are available for confirmation. At night, hairpin vortices appear to have been observed. The structure and dynamics of several types of vortices are described and related to other vortex investigations, including tornadoes and hurricanes.
Abstract
The partial solar eclipse on 11 July 1991 in central California, with 58.3% maximum coverage, provided an exceptional opportunity to study the temporal response of processes in the atmospheric boundary layer to an abrupt change in solar radiation. Almost laboratory-like conditions were met over a cotton field, since no clouds disturbed the course of the eclipse. Tower-based and complementing aircraft-based systems monitored the micrometeorological conditions over the site. Temperature profile measurements indicated neutral stratification during the maximum eclipse in contrast to the unstable conditions before and after the eclipse. Accordingly, the sensible heat exchange completely stopped, as a wavelet analysis of the tower measurements and airborne eddy-covariance measurements showed. Turbulent fluxes of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone were reduced by approximately ⅔ at the peak of the eclipse. Wavelet analysis further indicated that the same eddies contributed to the turbulent transport of water vapor and carbon dioxide, whereas sensible heat was transported by different ones. An analysis of the decay of turbulent kinetic energy followed a power law of time with an exponent of −1.25. The response of the sensible heat flux was 8–13 min delayed relative to the solar forcing, whereas no significant time lag could be detected for the turbulent fluxes of air constituents.
Abstract
The partial solar eclipse on 11 July 1991 in central California, with 58.3% maximum coverage, provided an exceptional opportunity to study the temporal response of processes in the atmospheric boundary layer to an abrupt change in solar radiation. Almost laboratory-like conditions were met over a cotton field, since no clouds disturbed the course of the eclipse. Tower-based and complementing aircraft-based systems monitored the micrometeorological conditions over the site. Temperature profile measurements indicated neutral stratification during the maximum eclipse in contrast to the unstable conditions before and after the eclipse. Accordingly, the sensible heat exchange completely stopped, as a wavelet analysis of the tower measurements and airborne eddy-covariance measurements showed. Turbulent fluxes of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone were reduced by approximately ⅔ at the peak of the eclipse. Wavelet analysis further indicated that the same eddies contributed to the turbulent transport of water vapor and carbon dioxide, whereas sensible heat was transported by different ones. An analysis of the decay of turbulent kinetic energy followed a power law of time with an exponent of −1.25. The response of the sensible heat flux was 8–13 min delayed relative to the solar forcing, whereas no significant time lag could be detected for the turbulent fluxes of air constituents.
Abstract
The construction and deployment of a portable trace-gas measurement system (TGaMS) is described. The air-collection system (dubbed HYDRA) collects air samples from 18 different locations and was connected to either one or two LI-COR LI-7000 gas analyzers to measure CO2. An in situ “field calibration” method, that uses four calibration gases with an uncertainty on the order of ±0.1 μmol mol−1 relative to the WMO CO2 mole fraction scale, revealed CO2 output from the LI-7000 had a slightly nonlinear relationship relative to the CO2 concentration of the calibration gases. The sensitivity of the field-calibrated CO2 to different forms of the field-calibration equation is investigated. To evaluate TGaMS performance, CO2 from collocated inlets, portable gas cylinders, and nearby independent CO2 instruments are compared. Results are as follows: 1) CO2 measurements from HYDRA multiple inlets are feasible with a reproducibility of ±0.4 μmol mol−1 (based on the standard deviation of the CO2 difference between collocated inlets when HYDRA was operating with two LI-7000s); 2) CO2 differences among the various field-calibration equations were on the order of ±0.3 μmol mol−1; and 3) comparison of midday hourly CO2 measurements at 30 m AGL between TGaMS and an independent high-accuracy CO2 measurement system (within 300 m of TGaMS) had a median difference and standard deviation of 0.04 ± 0.81 μmol mol−1 over two months.
Abstract
The construction and deployment of a portable trace-gas measurement system (TGaMS) is described. The air-collection system (dubbed HYDRA) collects air samples from 18 different locations and was connected to either one or two LI-COR LI-7000 gas analyzers to measure CO2. An in situ “field calibration” method, that uses four calibration gases with an uncertainty on the order of ±0.1 μmol mol−1 relative to the WMO CO2 mole fraction scale, revealed CO2 output from the LI-7000 had a slightly nonlinear relationship relative to the CO2 concentration of the calibration gases. The sensitivity of the field-calibrated CO2 to different forms of the field-calibration equation is investigated. To evaluate TGaMS performance, CO2 from collocated inlets, portable gas cylinders, and nearby independent CO2 instruments are compared. Results are as follows: 1) CO2 measurements from HYDRA multiple inlets are feasible with a reproducibility of ±0.4 μmol mol−1 (based on the standard deviation of the CO2 difference between collocated inlets when HYDRA was operating with two LI-7000s); 2) CO2 differences among the various field-calibration equations were on the order of ±0.3 μmol mol−1; and 3) comparison of midday hourly CO2 measurements at 30 m AGL between TGaMS and an independent high-accuracy CO2 measurement system (within 300 m of TGaMS) had a median difference and standard deviation of 0.04 ± 0.81 μmol mol−1 over two months.
An atmospheric boundary layer experiment into the high Arctic was carried out on the Swedish icebreaker Oden during the summer of 2001, with the primary boundary layer observations obtained while the icebreaker drifted with the ice near 89°N during 3 weeks in August. The purposes of the experiment were to gain an understanding of atmospheric boundary layer structure and transient mixing mechanisms, in addition to their relationships to boundary layer clouds and aerosol production. Using a combination of in situ and remote sensing instruments, with temporal and spatial resolutions previously not deployed in the Arctic, continuous measurements of the lower-troposphere structure and boundary layer turbulence were taken concurrently with atmospheric gas and particulate chemistry, and marine biology measurements.
The boundary layer was strongly controlled by ice thermodynamics and local turbulent mixing. Near-surface temperatures mostly remained between near the melting points of the sea- and freshwater, and near-surface relative humidity was high. Low clouds prevailed and fog appeared frequently. Visibility outside of fog was surprisingly good even with very low clouds, probably due to a lack of aerosol particles preventing the formation of haze. The boundary layer was shallow but remained well mixed, capped by an occasionally very strong inversion. Specific humidity often increased with height across the capping inversion.
In contrast to the boundary layer, the free troposphere often retained its characteristics from well beyond the Arctic. Elevated intrusions of warm, moist air from open seas to the south were frequent. The picture that the Arctic atmosphere is less affected by transport from lower latitudes in summer than the winter may, thus, be an artifact of analyzing only surface measurements. The transport of air from lower latitudes at heights above the boundary layer has a major impact on the Arctic boundary layer, even very close to the North Pole. During a few week-long periods synoptic-scale weather systems appeared, while weaker and shallower mesoscale fronts were frequent. While frontal passages changed the properties of the free troposphere, changes in the boundary layer were more determined by local effects that often led to changes contrary to those aloft. For example, increasing winds associated with a cold front often led to a warming of the near-surface air by mixing and entrapment.
An atmospheric boundary layer experiment into the high Arctic was carried out on the Swedish icebreaker Oden during the summer of 2001, with the primary boundary layer observations obtained while the icebreaker drifted with the ice near 89°N during 3 weeks in August. The purposes of the experiment were to gain an understanding of atmospheric boundary layer structure and transient mixing mechanisms, in addition to their relationships to boundary layer clouds and aerosol production. Using a combination of in situ and remote sensing instruments, with temporal and spatial resolutions previously not deployed in the Arctic, continuous measurements of the lower-troposphere structure and boundary layer turbulence were taken concurrently with atmospheric gas and particulate chemistry, and marine biology measurements.
The boundary layer was strongly controlled by ice thermodynamics and local turbulent mixing. Near-surface temperatures mostly remained between near the melting points of the sea- and freshwater, and near-surface relative humidity was high. Low clouds prevailed and fog appeared frequently. Visibility outside of fog was surprisingly good even with very low clouds, probably due to a lack of aerosol particles preventing the formation of haze. The boundary layer was shallow but remained well mixed, capped by an occasionally very strong inversion. Specific humidity often increased with height across the capping inversion.
In contrast to the boundary layer, the free troposphere often retained its characteristics from well beyond the Arctic. Elevated intrusions of warm, moist air from open seas to the south were frequent. The picture that the Arctic atmosphere is less affected by transport from lower latitudes in summer than the winter may, thus, be an artifact of analyzing only surface measurements. The transport of air from lower latitudes at heights above the boundary layer has a major impact on the Arctic boundary layer, even very close to the North Pole. During a few week-long periods synoptic-scale weather systems appeared, while weaker and shallower mesoscale fronts were frequent. While frontal passages changed the properties of the free troposphere, changes in the boundary layer were more determined by local effects that often led to changes contrary to those aloft. For example, increasing winds associated with a cold front often led to a warming of the near-surface air by mixing and entrapment.
Abstract
A unique set of nocturnal longwave radiative and sensible heat flux divergences was obtained during the 1999 Cooperative Atmosphere–Surface Exchange Study (CASES-99). These divergences are based on upward and downward longwave radiation measurements at two levels and turbulent eddy correlation measurements at eight levels. In contrast to previous radiation divergence measurements obtained within 10 m above the ground, radiative flux divergence was measured within a deeper layer—between 2 and 48 m. Within the layer, the radiative flux divergence is, on average, comparable to or smaller than the sensible heat flux divergence. The horizontal and vertical temperature advection, derived as the residual in the heat balance using observed sensible heat and radiative fluxes, are found to be significant terms in the heat balance at night. The observations also indicate that the radiative flux divergence between 2 and 48 m was typically largest in the early evening. Its magnitude depends on how fast the ground cools and on how large the vertical temperature gradient is within the layer. A radiative flux difference of more than 10 W m−2 over 46 m of height was observed under weak-wind and clear-sky conditions after hot days. Wind speed variation can change not only the sensible heat transfer but also the surface longwave radiation because of variations of the area exposure of the warmer grass stems and soil surfaces versus the cooler grass blade tips, leading to fluctuations of the radiative flux divergence throughout the night.
Abstract
A unique set of nocturnal longwave radiative and sensible heat flux divergences was obtained during the 1999 Cooperative Atmosphere–Surface Exchange Study (CASES-99). These divergences are based on upward and downward longwave radiation measurements at two levels and turbulent eddy correlation measurements at eight levels. In contrast to previous radiation divergence measurements obtained within 10 m above the ground, radiative flux divergence was measured within a deeper layer—between 2 and 48 m. Within the layer, the radiative flux divergence is, on average, comparable to or smaller than the sensible heat flux divergence. The horizontal and vertical temperature advection, derived as the residual in the heat balance using observed sensible heat and radiative fluxes, are found to be significant terms in the heat balance at night. The observations also indicate that the radiative flux divergence between 2 and 48 m was typically largest in the early evening. Its magnitude depends on how fast the ground cools and on how large the vertical temperature gradient is within the layer. A radiative flux difference of more than 10 W m−2 over 46 m of height was observed under weak-wind and clear-sky conditions after hot days. Wind speed variation can change not only the sensible heat transfer but also the surface longwave radiation because of variations of the area exposure of the warmer grass stems and soil surfaces versus the cooler grass blade tips, leading to fluctuations of the radiative flux divergence throughout the night.
Abstract
An atmospheric surface-layer experiment over a nearly uniform plowed field was performed to determine the constants in the flux-profile similarity formulas, particularly the von Kármán constant. New instruments were constructed to minimize flow distortion effects on the turbulence measurements and to provide high-resolution gradient measurements. In addition, a hot-wire anemometer directly measured the turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate.
An average value of the von Kármán constant of 0.365 ± 0.015 was obtained from 91 runs (31 h) in near-neutral stability conditions. However, four near-neutral runs when snow covered the ground gave an average value of 0.42. This result suggests that the von Kármán constant depends on the roughness Reynolds number, which may resolve some of the differences in previous determinations over different surfaces. The one-dimensional Kolmogorov inertial subrange constant was found to have a value of 0.54 ± 0.03, slightly larger than previous results.
The flux-profile relations for momentum and temperature variance were evaluated, and humidity variance data behaved similarly to temperature. Dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy was found to be less than production under near-neutral conditions, which suggests that turbulent or pressure transport may be significant.
Abstract
An atmospheric surface-layer experiment over a nearly uniform plowed field was performed to determine the constants in the flux-profile similarity formulas, particularly the von Kármán constant. New instruments were constructed to minimize flow distortion effects on the turbulence measurements and to provide high-resolution gradient measurements. In addition, a hot-wire anemometer directly measured the turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate.
An average value of the von Kármán constant of 0.365 ± 0.015 was obtained from 91 runs (31 h) in near-neutral stability conditions. However, four near-neutral runs when snow covered the ground gave an average value of 0.42. This result suggests that the von Kármán constant depends on the roughness Reynolds number, which may resolve some of the differences in previous determinations over different surfaces. The one-dimensional Kolmogorov inertial subrange constant was found to have a value of 0.54 ± 0.03, slightly larger than previous results.
The flux-profile relations for momentum and temperature variance were evaluated, and humidity variance data behaved similarly to temperature. Dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy was found to be less than production under near-neutral conditions, which suggests that turbulent or pressure transport may be significant.
Abstract
A multiscale dataset that includes atmospheric, surface, and subsurface observations obtained from an observation network covering a region that has a scale order comparable to mesoscale and general circulation models is described and analyzed. The dataset is half-hourly time series of forcing and flux response data developed from the one-month Cooperative Atmosphere–Surface Exchange Study (CASES-97) experiment, located in the Walnut Watershed near Wichita, Kansas. The horizontal complexity of this dataset was analyzed by looking at the sensible and latent heat flux response of station data from the three main land surface types of winter wheat, grass/pastureland, and bare soil/sparse vegetation. The variability in the heat flux response at and among the different sites points to the need for a spatially distributed, time-varying atmospheric-forcing dataset for use in land surface modeling experiments. Such a dataset at horizontal spacings of 1, 5, and 10 km was developed from the station data and other remotely sensed platforms, and its spatial heterogeneity was analyzed.
Abstract
A multiscale dataset that includes atmospheric, surface, and subsurface observations obtained from an observation network covering a region that has a scale order comparable to mesoscale and general circulation models is described and analyzed. The dataset is half-hourly time series of forcing and flux response data developed from the one-month Cooperative Atmosphere–Surface Exchange Study (CASES-97) experiment, located in the Walnut Watershed near Wichita, Kansas. The horizontal complexity of this dataset was analyzed by looking at the sensible and latent heat flux response of station data from the three main land surface types of winter wheat, grass/pastureland, and bare soil/sparse vegetation. The variability in the heat flux response at and among the different sites points to the need for a spatially distributed, time-varying atmospheric-forcing dataset for use in land surface modeling experiments. Such a dataset at horizontal spacings of 1, 5, and 10 km was developed from the station data and other remotely sensed platforms, and its spatial heterogeneity was analyzed.
