Abstract

Linear analytical solutions for bottom-trapped subinertial oscillatory flow over simple ridge topographies in a stratified (two-layer) rotating fluid are presented. Results are compared to moored current meter observations of bottom-intensified motions over the Endeavour Segment of Juan de Fuca Ridge in the northeast Pacific. The solutions reproduce many of the observed features including preferential amplification of the clockwise rotary component of velocity over the ridge and increased velocity amplification with proximity to the ridge crest. For a given internal deformation radius, the degree of current amplification increases with increased bottom slope, ridge height, and oscillation frequency. Amplification decreases with increased width of the ridge relative to the deformation radius.

Abstract

The response of a coastal ocean numerical model, typical of eastern boundaries, is investigated under upwelling-favorable wind forcing and with/without the presence of a submarine canyon. Experiments were run over three contrasting shelf depth/slope bathymetries and forced by an upwelling-favorable alongshore wind. Random noise in the wind stress field was used to trigger the onset of frontal instabilities, which formed around the upwelling front. Their development and evolution are enhanced over deeper (and less inclined) shelves. Experiments without a submarine canyon agree well with previous studies of upwelling frontal instabilities; baroclinic instabilities grow along the front in time. The addition of a submarine canyon incising the continental shelf dramatically changes the circulation and frontal characteristics. Intensified upwelling is channeled through the downstream side of the canyon in all depth/slope configurations. Farther downstream a downwelling area is generated, being larger and stronger on a shallow shelf. The canyon affects mainly the location of the southward upwelling jet, which is deflected inshore and accelerated after passing over the canyon. This process is accompanied by a break in the alongshore scale of the instabilities on either side of the canyon. Term balances of the depth-averaged cross-shore momentum equation reaffirm the downstream acceleration of the jet and the increased wavelength of the instabilities, and clarify the dominant balance between the advection and ageostrophic terms around the canyon.

Abstract

The exchanges of water, nutrients, and oxygen between the coastal and open ocean are key components of on-shelf nutrient budgets and biogeochemical cycles. On a regional scale, submarine canyons enhance physical processes such as shelf–slope mass exchange and mixing. There is good understanding of the flow around upwelling submarine canyons; however, the flux of biologically relevant tracers is less understood. This work investigates the impact of submarine canyons on the cross-shelf exchange of tracers and water, taking into account the impact of locally enhanced mixing within the canyon, and develops a scaling estimate for canyon-induced upwelling of tracers, proportional to local concentration, vertical diffusivity, and previously scaled upwelling flux. For that purpose, we performed numerical experiments simulating an upwelling event near an idealized canyon, adding a passive tracer with an initially linear profile. We varied the geographic distribution of vertical eddy diffusivity and its magnitude, the initial stratification, the Coriolis parameter, and the strength of the incoming flow. We find that a canyon of width 5% of the along-shelf length of the shelf upwells between 25% and 89% more tracer mass onto the shelf than shelfbreak upwelling. Locally enhanced vertical diffusivity has a positive effect on the tracer that is advected by the upwelling flow and can increase canyon-upwelled tracer flux by up to 27%.

Abstract

Strong gap winds in Howe Sound, British Columbia, are simulated using a small-scale physical model. Model results are presented and compared with observations recorded in Howe Sound during a severe gap wind event in December 1992. Hydraulic theory is utilized to explain along-channel variation in wind. Field observations affirm the findings of the physical modeling with both, indicating the presence and location of controls and hydraulic jumps in the wind layer. Hydraulic behavior is found to change as the synoptic pressure gradient and the flow rate increase. In particular, field results indicate two distinct hydraulic situations: one during relatively weak wind, the other, which is more strongly controlled, during the period of peak wind. An additional comparison is made with output from the computer model hydmod of Jackson and Steyn. Numerical simulations, configured for the conditions present in Howe Sound during the December 1992 event, indicate channel hydraulics (and thus spatial wind speed variation) closely resembling the physical model and field results.

Abstract

This article provides an overview of the NASA Atmospheric Tomography (ATom) mission and a summary of selected scientific findings to date. ATom was an airborne measurements and modeling campaign aimed at characterizing the composition and chemistry of the troposphere over the most remote regions of the Pacific, Southern, Atlantic, and Arctic Oceans, and examining the impact of anthropogenic and natural emissions on a global scale. These remote regions dominate global chemical reactivity and are exceptionally important for global air quality and climate. ATom data provide the in situ measurements needed to understand the range of chemical species and their reactions, and to test satellite remote sensing observations and global models over large regions of the remote atmosphere. Lack of data in these regions, particularly over the oceans, has limited our understanding of how atmospheric composition is changing in response to shifting anthropogenic emissions and physical climate change. ATom was designed as a global-scale tomographic sampling mission with extensive geographic and seasonal coverage, tropospheric vertical profiling, and detailed speciation of reactive compounds and pollution tracers. ATom flew the NASA DC-8 research aircraft over four seasons to collect a comprehensive suite of measurements of gases, aerosols, and radical species from the remote troposphere and lower stratosphere on four global circuits from 2016 to 2018. Flights maintained near-continuous vertical profiling of 0.15–13-km altitudes on long meridional transects of the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean basins. Analysis and modeling of ATom data have led to the significant early findings highlighted here.

Abstract

—J. BLUNDEN, T. BOYER, AND E. BARTOW-GILLIES

Earth’s global climate system is vast, complex, and intricately interrelated. Many areas are influenced by global-scale phenomena, including the “triple dip” La Niña conditions that prevailed in the eastern Pacific Ocean nearly continuously from mid-2020 through all of 2022; by regional phenomena such as the positive winter and summer North Atlantic Oscillation that impacted weather in parts the Northern Hemisphere and the negative Indian Ocean dipole that impacted weather in parts of the Southern Hemisphere; and by more localized systems such as high-pressure heat domes that caused extreme heat in different areas of the world. Underlying all these natural short-term variabilities are long-term climate trends due to continuous increases since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the atmospheric concentrations of Earth’s major greenhouse gases.

In 2022, the annual global average carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere rose to 417.1±0.1 ppm, which is 50% greater than the pre-industrial level. Global mean tropospheric methane abundance was 165% higher than its pre-industrial level, and nitrous oxide was 24% higher. All three gases set new record-high atmospheric concentration levels in 2022.

Sea-surface temperature patterns in the tropical Pacific characteristic of La Niña and attendant atmospheric patterns tend to mitigate atmospheric heat gain at the global scale, but the annual global surface temperature across land and oceans was still among the six highest in records dating as far back as the mid-1800s. It was the warmest La Niña year on record. Many areas observed record or near-record heat. Europe as a whole observed its second-warmest year on record, with sixteen individual countries observing record warmth at the national scale. Records were shattered across the continent during the summer months as heatwaves plagued the region. On 18 July, 104 stations in France broke their all-time records. One day later, England recorded a temperature of 40°C for the first time ever. China experienced its second-warmest year and warmest summer on record. In the Southern Hemisphere, the average temperature across New Zealand reached a record high for the second year in a row. While Australia’s annual temperature was slightly below the 1991–2020 average, Onslow Airport in Western Australia reached 50.7°C on 13 January, equaling Australia's highest temperature on record.

While fewer in number and locations than record-high temperatures, record cold was also observed during the year. Southern Africa had its coldest August on record, with minimum temperatures as much as 5°C below normal over Angola, western Zambia, and northern Namibia. Cold outbreaks in the first half of December led to many record-low daily minimum temperature records in eastern Australia.

The effects of rising temperatures and extreme heat were apparent across the Northern Hemisphere, where snow-cover extent by June 2022 was the third smallest in the 56-year record, and the seasonal duration of lake ice cover was the fourth shortest since 1980. More frequent and intense heatwaves contributed to the second-greatest average mass balance loss for Alpine glaciers around the world since the start of the record in 1970. Glaciers in the Swiss Alps lost a record 6% of their volume. In South America, the combination of drought and heat left many central Andean glaciers snow free by mid-summer in early 2022; glacial ice has a much lower albedo than snow, leading to accelerated heating of the glacier. Across the global cryosphere, permafrost temperatures continued to reach record highs at many high-latitude and mountain locations.

In the high northern latitudes, the annual surface-air temperature across the Arctic was the fifth highest in the 123-year record. The seasonal Arctic minimum sea-ice extent, typically reached in September, was the 11th-smallest in the 43-year record; however, the amount of multiyear ice—ice that survives at least one summer melt season—remaining in the Arctic continued to decline. Since 2012, the Arctic has been nearly devoid of ice more than four years old.

In Antarctica, an unusually large amount of snow and ice fell over the continent in 2022 due to several landfalling atmospheric rivers, which contributed to the highest annual surface mass balance, 15% to 16% above the 1991–2020 normal, since the start of two reanalyses records dating to 1980. It was the second-warmest year on record for all five of the long-term staffed weather stations on the Antarctic Peninsula. In East Antarctica, a heatwave event led to a new all-time record-high temperature of −9.4°C—44°C above the March average—on 18 March at Dome C. This was followed by the collapse of the critically unstable Conger Ice Shelf. More than 100 daily low sea-ice extent and sea-ice area records were set in 2022, including two new all-time annual record lows in net sea-ice extent and area in February.

Across the world’s oceans, global mean sea level was record high for the 11th consecutive year, reaching 101.2 mm above the 1993 average when satellite altimetry measurements began, an increase of 3.3±0.7 over 2021. Globally-averaged ocean heat content was also record high in 2022, while the global sea-surface temperature was the sixth highest on record, equal with 2018. Approximately 58% of the ocean surface experienced at least one marine heatwave in 2022. In the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand’s longest continuous marine heatwave was recorded.

A total of 85 named tropical storms were observed during the Northern and Southern Hemisphere storm seasons, close to the 1991–2020 average of 87. There were three Category 5 tropical cyclones across the globe—two in the western North Pacific and one in the North Atlantic. This was the fewest Category 5 storms globally since 2017. Globally, the accumulated cyclone energy was the lowest since reliable records began in 1981. Regardless, some storms caused massive damage. In the North Atlantic, Hurricane Fiona became the most intense and most destructive tropical or post-tropical cyclone in Atlantic Canada’s history, while major Hurricane Ian killed more than 100 people and became the third costliest disaster in the United States, causing damage estimated at $113 billion U.S. dollars. In the South Indian Ocean, Tropical Cyclone Batsirai dropped 2044 mm of rain at Commerson Crater in Réunion. The storm also impacted Madagascar, where 121 fatalities were reported.

As is typical, some areas around the world were notably dry in 2022 and some were notably wet. In August, record high areas of land across the globe (6.2%) were experiencing extreme drought. Overall, 29% of land experienced moderate or worse categories of drought during the year. The largest drought footprint in the contiguous United States since 2012 (63%) was observed in late October. The record-breaking megadrought of central Chile continued in its 13th consecutive year, and 80-year record-low river levels in northern Argentina and Paraguay disrupted fluvial transport. In China, the Yangtze River reached record-low values. Much of equatorial eastern Africa had five consecutive below-normal rainy seasons by the end of 2022, with some areas receiving record-low precipitation totals for the year. This ongoing 2.5-year drought is the most extensive and persistent drought event in decades, and led to crop failure, millions of livestock deaths, water scarcity, and inflated prices for staple food items.

In South Asia, Pakistan received around three times its normal volume of monsoon precipitation in August, with some regions receiving up to eight times their expected monthly totals. Resulting floods affected over 30 million people, caused over 1700 fatalities, led to major crop and property losses, and was recorded as one of the world’s costliest natural disasters of all time. Near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Petrópolis received 530 mm in 24 hours on 15 February, about 2.5 times the monthly February average, leading to the worst disaster in the city since 1931 with over 230 fatalities.

On 14–15 January, the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai submarine volcano in the South Pacific erupted multiple times. The injection of water into the atmosphere was unprecedented in both magnitude—far exceeding any previous values in the 17-year satellite record—and altitude as it penetrated into the mesosphere. The amount of water injected into the stratosphere is estimated to be 146±5 Terragrams, or ∼10% of the total amount in the stratosphere. It may take several years for the water plume to dissipate, and it is currently unknown whether this eruption will have any long-term climate effect.