Search Results
You are looking at 1 - 10 of 12 items for
- Author or Editor: T. Holt x
- Refine by Access: All Content x
Abstract
The temperature structure of the Irish Sea is investigated using a 3-yr simulation with a high-resolution (∼1.8 km) three-dimensional baroclinic model (the Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory Coastal-Ocean Modelling System) and CTD and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer observations. This paper focuses on the extent to which (horizontal) advection determines the temperature structure. It is found that it has a significant effect on the depth-mean temperatures throughout the region and on the vertical profiles in seasonally stratified areas, such as the Celtic Sea and western Irish Sea. There is depth-mean advective heating during the summer in these stratified regions, whereas in well-mixed regions advection tends to reduce the amplitude of the seasonal cycle. Through an analysis of the terms in the temperature equation, the warming of the “cool pool” waters of the western Irish Sea can be attributed to the advection of partially well-mixed waters into the stratified region from the north. This occurs as an entrainment process with the southward current on the western side of this region folding in this water from the north. This current is seen to originate both as part of the “gyre” circulation and from southward flow through the North Channel of the Irish Sea. The accuracy to which temperatures are modeled (particularly near the seabed in this stratified region), as compared with an experiment without temperature and salinity advection, lends weight to this interpretation of the model results. Overall rms errors against CTD observations are 1.1°C with advection and 1.7°C without. In addition to the direct effects of currents, salinity stratification (which is not present without advection in the western Irish Sea in this model) is seen to play a role in determining the temperature structure, particularly in the spring and early summer. Unlike previous baroclinic simulations in this region, the model run is continued for a further 2 yr, allowing the investigation of the seasonal cycle of temperature far removed from the initial condition. In a number of regions, a systematic overestimation of the winter temperatures is found (the cause of which has yet to be identified), but this bias does not compromise the accuracy of the results between the spring and autumn of subsequent years.
Abstract
The temperature structure of the Irish Sea is investigated using a 3-yr simulation with a high-resolution (∼1.8 km) three-dimensional baroclinic model (the Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory Coastal-Ocean Modelling System) and CTD and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer observations. This paper focuses on the extent to which (horizontal) advection determines the temperature structure. It is found that it has a significant effect on the depth-mean temperatures throughout the region and on the vertical profiles in seasonally stratified areas, such as the Celtic Sea and western Irish Sea. There is depth-mean advective heating during the summer in these stratified regions, whereas in well-mixed regions advection tends to reduce the amplitude of the seasonal cycle. Through an analysis of the terms in the temperature equation, the warming of the “cool pool” waters of the western Irish Sea can be attributed to the advection of partially well-mixed waters into the stratified region from the north. This occurs as an entrainment process with the southward current on the western side of this region folding in this water from the north. This current is seen to originate both as part of the “gyre” circulation and from southward flow through the North Channel of the Irish Sea. The accuracy to which temperatures are modeled (particularly near the seabed in this stratified region), as compared with an experiment without temperature and salinity advection, lends weight to this interpretation of the model results. Overall rms errors against CTD observations are 1.1°C with advection and 1.7°C without. In addition to the direct effects of currents, salinity stratification (which is not present without advection in the western Irish Sea in this model) is seen to play a role in determining the temperature structure, particularly in the spring and early summer. Unlike previous baroclinic simulations in this region, the model run is continued for a further 2 yr, allowing the investigation of the seasonal cycle of temperature far removed from the initial condition. In a number of regions, a systematic overestimation of the winter temperatures is found (the cause of which has yet to be identified), but this bias does not compromise the accuracy of the results between the spring and autumn of subsequent years.
Abstract
Data from surface stations, profilers, long-range aircraft surveys, and satellites were used to characterize the large-scale structure of the marine boundary layer off of California and Oregon during June and July 1996. To supplement these observations, June–July 1996 averages of meteorological fields from the U.S. Navy’s operational Coupled Ocean–Atmospheric Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) model were generated for the region. Model calculations show a broad band of fast northerly surface winds exceeding 7 m s−1 extending along the California–Oregon coast. Buoy-measured peaks of 7.1 m s−1 off Bodega Bay, 7.2 m s−1 off Point Piedras Blancas, and 8.8 m s−1 near Point Conception were reported. Mean winds at the buoys located 15–25 km offshore are generally faster than those at coastal stations, and all station winds are faster in the afternoon.
The aircraft and station observations confirm that an air temperature inversion typically marks the top of the marine boundary layer, which deepens offshore. Along the coast, the marine boundary layer thins between Cape Blanco and Santa Barbara. The inversion base height is at its lowest (195 m) at Bodega Bay in northern California and at its highest at Los Angeles and San Diego (416 m). The inversion strength is strongest between Bodega Bay and Point Piedras Blancas, exceeding 10.8°C. The June–July 1996 marine boundary layer depth from COAMPS shows a gradual deepening with distance offshore.
The model-averaged flow within the marine boundary layer is supercritical (Froude number > 1) in a region between San Francisco and Cape Mendocino that extends offshore to 126.4°W. Smaller isolated supercritical areas occur in the lee of every major cape, with the peak Froude number of 1.3 in the lee of Cape Mendocino. This is consistent with aircraft flights of Coastal Waves ’96, when extensive regions of supercritical flow off central California and downwind of major capes were recorded with highest Froude numbers around 1.5–2.0. A broad, wedge-shaped area of nearly critical flow (Froude number > 0.8) extends from Cape Blanco to Point Piedras Blancas and offshore to about 128.5°W in the model output.
The model wind stress has a broad maximum exceeding 0.3 N m−2 between Cape Mendocino and San Francisco with the highest values found within 100 km of the coast. Stress calculated directly from low aircraft legs is highest in the lee of large capes with peak values exceeding 0.7 N m−2. Overall aircraft magnitudes are similar to the model’s, but a direct comparison with the 2-month average from the model is not possible due to the lesser space and time coverage of the flights. The stress maxima along the California coast shown in the model results are spatially consistent with the region of coldest sea surface temperature observed by satellite.
Abstract
Data from surface stations, profilers, long-range aircraft surveys, and satellites were used to characterize the large-scale structure of the marine boundary layer off of California and Oregon during June and July 1996. To supplement these observations, June–July 1996 averages of meteorological fields from the U.S. Navy’s operational Coupled Ocean–Atmospheric Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) model were generated for the region. Model calculations show a broad band of fast northerly surface winds exceeding 7 m s−1 extending along the California–Oregon coast. Buoy-measured peaks of 7.1 m s−1 off Bodega Bay, 7.2 m s−1 off Point Piedras Blancas, and 8.8 m s−1 near Point Conception were reported. Mean winds at the buoys located 15–25 km offshore are generally faster than those at coastal stations, and all station winds are faster in the afternoon.
The aircraft and station observations confirm that an air temperature inversion typically marks the top of the marine boundary layer, which deepens offshore. Along the coast, the marine boundary layer thins between Cape Blanco and Santa Barbara. The inversion base height is at its lowest (195 m) at Bodega Bay in northern California and at its highest at Los Angeles and San Diego (416 m). The inversion strength is strongest between Bodega Bay and Point Piedras Blancas, exceeding 10.8°C. The June–July 1996 marine boundary layer depth from COAMPS shows a gradual deepening with distance offshore.
The model-averaged flow within the marine boundary layer is supercritical (Froude number > 1) in a region between San Francisco and Cape Mendocino that extends offshore to 126.4°W. Smaller isolated supercritical areas occur in the lee of every major cape, with the peak Froude number of 1.3 in the lee of Cape Mendocino. This is consistent with aircraft flights of Coastal Waves ’96, when extensive regions of supercritical flow off central California and downwind of major capes were recorded with highest Froude numbers around 1.5–2.0. A broad, wedge-shaped area of nearly critical flow (Froude number > 0.8) extends from Cape Blanco to Point Piedras Blancas and offshore to about 128.5°W in the model output.
The model wind stress has a broad maximum exceeding 0.3 N m−2 between Cape Mendocino and San Francisco with the highest values found within 100 km of the coast. Stress calculated directly from low aircraft legs is highest in the lee of large capes with peak values exceeding 0.7 N m−2. Overall aircraft magnitudes are similar to the model’s, but a direct comparison with the 2-month average from the model is not possible due to the lesser space and time coverage of the flights. The stress maxima along the California coast shown in the model results are spatially consistent with the region of coldest sea surface temperature observed by satellite.
Abstract
Thermal structure of the marine boundary layer (MBL) was studied during a five-day cruise over the coastal Atlantic Ocean off North Carolina. Three different synoptic conditions were present: ahead of a low moving along the coast, in the area of a frontal zone and during a cold air outbreak. The marine boundary layer height was deeper (approximately 1500 m) and more sharply defined during the cold air outbreak than when the flow was southwesterly with a long fetch over water; the height was only about 1000 m for the latter case. Latent heat fluxes were significantly larger than sensible heat, but during the cold air outbreak, sensible heat fluxes increased appreciably.
Abstract
Thermal structure of the marine boundary layer (MBL) was studied during a five-day cruise over the coastal Atlantic Ocean off North Carolina. Three different synoptic conditions were present: ahead of a low moving along the coast, in the area of a frontal zone and during a cold air outbreak. The marine boundary layer height was deeper (approximately 1500 m) and more sharply defined during the cold air outbreak than when the flow was southwesterly with a long fetch over water; the height was only about 1000 m for the latter case. Latent heat fluxes were significantly larger than sensible heat, but during the cold air outbreak, sensible heat fluxes increased appreciably.
Abstract
A statistical downscaling methodology was implemented to generate daily time series of temperature and rainfall for point locations within a catchment, based on the output from general circulation models. The rainfall scenarios were constructed by a two-stage process. First, for a single station, a conditional first-order Markov chain was used to generate wet and dry day successions. Then, the multisite scenarios were constructed by sampling from a benchmark file containing a daily time series of multiple-site observations, classified by season, circulation weather type, and whether the day is wet or dry at the reference station. The temperature scenarios were constructed using deterministic transfer functions initialized by free atmosphere variables. The relationship between the temperature and rainfall scenarios is established in two ways. First, sea level pressure fields define the circulation weather types underpinning the rainfall scenarios and are used to construct predictor variables in the temperature scenarios. Second, separate temperature transfer functions are developed for wet and dry days.
The methods were evaluated in two Mediterranean catchments. The rainfall scenarios were always too dry, despite the application of Monte Carlo techniques in an attempt to overcome the problem. The temperature scenarios were generally too cool. The scenarios were used to explore the occurrence of extreme events, and the changes predicted in response to climate change, taking the example of temperature. The nonlinear relationship between changes in the mean and changes at the extremes was clearly demonstrated.
Abstract
A statistical downscaling methodology was implemented to generate daily time series of temperature and rainfall for point locations within a catchment, based on the output from general circulation models. The rainfall scenarios were constructed by a two-stage process. First, for a single station, a conditional first-order Markov chain was used to generate wet and dry day successions. Then, the multisite scenarios were constructed by sampling from a benchmark file containing a daily time series of multiple-site observations, classified by season, circulation weather type, and whether the day is wet or dry at the reference station. The temperature scenarios were constructed using deterministic transfer functions initialized by free atmosphere variables. The relationship between the temperature and rainfall scenarios is established in two ways. First, sea level pressure fields define the circulation weather types underpinning the rainfall scenarios and are used to construct predictor variables in the temperature scenarios. Second, separate temperature transfer functions are developed for wet and dry days.
The methods were evaluated in two Mediterranean catchments. The rainfall scenarios were always too dry, despite the application of Monte Carlo techniques in an attempt to overcome the problem. The temperature scenarios were generally too cool. The scenarios were used to explore the occurrence of extreme events, and the changes predicted in response to climate change, taking the example of temperature. The nonlinear relationship between changes in the mean and changes at the extremes was clearly demonstrated.
Abstract
Two extreme heat events impacting the New York City (NYC), New York, metropolitan region during 7–10 June and 21–24 July 2011 are examined in detail using a combination of models and observations. The U.S. Navy's Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) produces real-time forecasts across the region on a 1-km resolution grid and employs an urban canopy parameterization to account for the influence of the city on the atmosphere. Forecasts from the National Weather Service's 12-km resolution North American Mesoscale (NAM) implementation of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model are also examined. The accuracy of the forecasts is evaluated using a land- and coastline-based observation network. Observed temperatures reached 39°C or more at central urban sites over several days and remained high overnight due to urban heat island (UHI) effects, with a typical nighttime urban–rural temperature difference of 4°–5°C. Examining model performance broadly over both heat events and 27 sites, COAMPS has temperature RMS errors averaging 1.9°C, while NAM has RMSEs of 2.5°C. COAMPS high-resolution wind and temperature predictions captured key features of the observations. For example, during the early summer June heat event, the Long Island south shore coastline experienced a more pronounced sea breeze than was observed for the July heat wave.
Abstract
Two extreme heat events impacting the New York City (NYC), New York, metropolitan region during 7–10 June and 21–24 July 2011 are examined in detail using a combination of models and observations. The U.S. Navy's Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) produces real-time forecasts across the region on a 1-km resolution grid and employs an urban canopy parameterization to account for the influence of the city on the atmosphere. Forecasts from the National Weather Service's 12-km resolution North American Mesoscale (NAM) implementation of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model are also examined. The accuracy of the forecasts is evaluated using a land- and coastline-based observation network. Observed temperatures reached 39°C or more at central urban sites over several days and remained high overnight due to urban heat island (UHI) effects, with a typical nighttime urban–rural temperature difference of 4°–5°C. Examining model performance broadly over both heat events and 27 sites, COAMPS has temperature RMS errors averaging 1.9°C, while NAM has RMSEs of 2.5°C. COAMPS high-resolution wind and temperature predictions captured key features of the observations. For example, during the early summer June heat event, the Long Island south shore coastline experienced a more pronounced sea breeze than was observed for the July heat wave.
Abstract
A computationally inexpensive ensemble transform (ET) method for generating high-resolution initial perturbations for regional ensemble forecasts is introduced. The method provides initial perturbations that (i) have an initial variance consistent with the best available estimates of initial condition error variance, (ii) are dynamically conditioned by a process similar to that used in the breeding technique, (iii) add to zero at the initial time, (iv) are quasi-orthogonal and equally likely, and (v) partially respect mesoscale balance constraints by ensuring that each initial perturbation is a linear sum of forecast perturbations from the preceding forecast. The technique is tested using estimates of analysis error variance from the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Atmospheric Variational Data Assimilation System (NAVDAS) and the Navy’s regional Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) over a 3-week period during the summer of 2005. Lateral boundary conditions are provided by a global ET ensemble. The tests show that the ET regional ensemble has a skillful mean and a useful spread–skill relationship in mass, momentum, and precipitation variables. Diagnostics indicate that ensemble variance was close to, but probably a little less than, the forecast error variance for wind and temperature variables, while precipitation ensemble variance was significantly smaller than precipitation forecast error variance.
Abstract
A computationally inexpensive ensemble transform (ET) method for generating high-resolution initial perturbations for regional ensemble forecasts is introduced. The method provides initial perturbations that (i) have an initial variance consistent with the best available estimates of initial condition error variance, (ii) are dynamically conditioned by a process similar to that used in the breeding technique, (iii) add to zero at the initial time, (iv) are quasi-orthogonal and equally likely, and (v) partially respect mesoscale balance constraints by ensuring that each initial perturbation is a linear sum of forecast perturbations from the preceding forecast. The technique is tested using estimates of analysis error variance from the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Atmospheric Variational Data Assimilation System (NAVDAS) and the Navy’s regional Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) over a 3-week period during the summer of 2005. Lateral boundary conditions are provided by a global ET ensemble. The tests show that the ET regional ensemble has a skillful mean and a useful spread–skill relationship in mass, momentum, and precipitation variables. Diagnostics indicate that ensemble variance was close to, but probably a little less than, the forecast error variance for wind and temperature variables, while precipitation ensemble variance was significantly smaller than precipitation forecast error variance.
Abstract
Internal gravity waves (GWs) are ubiquitous in the atmosphere, making significant contributions to the mesoscale motions. Since the majority of their spectrum is unresolved in global circulation models, their effects need to be parameterized. In recent decades GWs have been increasingly studied in high-resolution simulations, which, unlike direct observations, allow us to explore full spatiotemporal variations of the resolved wave field. In our study we analyze and refine a traditional method for GW analysis in a high-resolution simulation on a regional domain around the Drake Passage. We show that GW momentum drag estimates based on the Gaussian high-pass filter method applied to separate GW perturbations from the background are sensitive to the choice of a cutoff parameter. The impact of the cutoff parameter is higher for horizontal fluxes of horizontal momentum, which indicates higher sensitivity for horizontally propagating waves. Two modified methods, which choose the parameter value from spectral information, are proposed. The dynamically determined cutoff is mostly higher than the traditional cutoff values around 500 km, leading to larger GW fluxes and drag, and varies with time and altitude. The differences between the traditional and the modified methods are especially pronounced during events with significant drag contributions from horizontal momentum fluxes.
Significance Statement
In this study, we highlight that the analysis of gravity wave activity from high-resolution datasets is a complex task with a pronounced sensitivity to the methodology, and we propose modified versions of a classical statistical gravity wave detection method enhanced by the spectral information. Although no optimal methodology exists to date, we show that the modified methods improve the accuracy of the gravity wave activity estimates, especially when oblique propagation plays a role.
Abstract
Internal gravity waves (GWs) are ubiquitous in the atmosphere, making significant contributions to the mesoscale motions. Since the majority of their spectrum is unresolved in global circulation models, their effects need to be parameterized. In recent decades GWs have been increasingly studied in high-resolution simulations, which, unlike direct observations, allow us to explore full spatiotemporal variations of the resolved wave field. In our study we analyze and refine a traditional method for GW analysis in a high-resolution simulation on a regional domain around the Drake Passage. We show that GW momentum drag estimates based on the Gaussian high-pass filter method applied to separate GW perturbations from the background are sensitive to the choice of a cutoff parameter. The impact of the cutoff parameter is higher for horizontal fluxes of horizontal momentum, which indicates higher sensitivity for horizontally propagating waves. Two modified methods, which choose the parameter value from spectral information, are proposed. The dynamically determined cutoff is mostly higher than the traditional cutoff values around 500 km, leading to larger GW fluxes and drag, and varies with time and altitude. The differences between the traditional and the modified methods are especially pronounced during events with significant drag contributions from horizontal momentum fluxes.
Significance Statement
In this study, we highlight that the analysis of gravity wave activity from high-resolution datasets is a complex task with a pronounced sensitivity to the methodology, and we propose modified versions of a classical statistical gravity wave detection method enhanced by the spectral information. Although no optimal methodology exists to date, we show that the modified methods improve the accuracy of the gravity wave activity estimates, especially when oblique propagation plays a role.
Abstract
The Marine Meteorology Division of the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), assisted by the Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center, has performed global and mesoscale reanalyses to support the study of Gulf War illness. Realistic and quantitatively accurate atmospheric conditions are needed to drive dispersion models that can predict the transport and dispersion of chemical agents that may have affected U.S. and other coalition troops in the hours and days following the demolition of chemical weapons at Khamisiyah, Iraq, at approximately 1315 UTC 10 March 1991. The reanalysis was conducted with the navy’s global and mesoscale analysis and prediction systems: the Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System and the NRL Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System. A comprehensive set of observations has been collected and used in the reanalysis, including unclassified and declassified surface reports, ship and buoy reports, observations from pibal and rawinsonde, and retrievals from civilian and military satellites. The atmospheric conditions for the entire globe have been reconstructed using the global system at the effective spatial resolution of 0.75°. The atmospheric conditions over southern Iraq, Kuwait, and northern Saudi Arabia have been reconstructed using the mesoscale system at the spatial resolutions of 45, 15, and 5 km. In addition to a baseline reanalysis, perturbation analyses were also performed to estimate the atmospheric sensitivity to observational error and analysis error. The results suggest that the reanalysis has bounded the variability and that the actual atmospheric conditions were unlikely to differ significantly from the reanalysis.
The synoptic conditions at and after the time of the detonation were typical of the transitional period after a Shamal and controlled by eastward-propagating small-amplitude troughs and ridges. On the mesoscale, the conditions over the Tigris–Euphrates Valley were further modulated by the diurnal variation in the local circulations between land, the Persian Gulf, and the Zagros Mountains. The boundary layer winds at Khamisiyah were from NNW at the time of the detonation and shifted to WNW in the nocturnal boundary layer. On the second day, a strong high passed north of Khamisiyah and the winds strengthened and turned to the ESE. During the third day, the region was dominated by the approach and passage of a low pressure system and the associated front with the SE winds veering to NW.
A transport model for passive scalars was used to illustrate the sensitivity to the reanalyzed fields of potential areas of contamination. Transport calculations based on various release scenario and reanalyzed meteorological conditions suggest that the mean path of the released chemical agents was southward from Khamisiyah initially, turning westward, and eventually northwestward during the 72-h period after the demolition. Precipitation amounts in the study area were negligible and unlikely to have an effect on the nerve agent.
Abstract
The Marine Meteorology Division of the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), assisted by the Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center, has performed global and mesoscale reanalyses to support the study of Gulf War illness. Realistic and quantitatively accurate atmospheric conditions are needed to drive dispersion models that can predict the transport and dispersion of chemical agents that may have affected U.S. and other coalition troops in the hours and days following the demolition of chemical weapons at Khamisiyah, Iraq, at approximately 1315 UTC 10 March 1991. The reanalysis was conducted with the navy’s global and mesoscale analysis and prediction systems: the Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System and the NRL Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System. A comprehensive set of observations has been collected and used in the reanalysis, including unclassified and declassified surface reports, ship and buoy reports, observations from pibal and rawinsonde, and retrievals from civilian and military satellites. The atmospheric conditions for the entire globe have been reconstructed using the global system at the effective spatial resolution of 0.75°. The atmospheric conditions over southern Iraq, Kuwait, and northern Saudi Arabia have been reconstructed using the mesoscale system at the spatial resolutions of 45, 15, and 5 km. In addition to a baseline reanalysis, perturbation analyses were also performed to estimate the atmospheric sensitivity to observational error and analysis error. The results suggest that the reanalysis has bounded the variability and that the actual atmospheric conditions were unlikely to differ significantly from the reanalysis.
The synoptic conditions at and after the time of the detonation were typical of the transitional period after a Shamal and controlled by eastward-propagating small-amplitude troughs and ridges. On the mesoscale, the conditions over the Tigris–Euphrates Valley were further modulated by the diurnal variation in the local circulations between land, the Persian Gulf, and the Zagros Mountains. The boundary layer winds at Khamisiyah were from NNW at the time of the detonation and shifted to WNW in the nocturnal boundary layer. On the second day, a strong high passed north of Khamisiyah and the winds strengthened and turned to the ESE. During the third day, the region was dominated by the approach and passage of a low pressure system and the associated front with the SE winds veering to NW.
A transport model for passive scalars was used to illustrate the sensitivity to the reanalyzed fields of potential areas of contamination. Transport calculations based on various release scenario and reanalyzed meteorological conditions suggest that the mean path of the released chemical agents was southward from Khamisiyah initially, turning westward, and eventually northwestward during the 72-h period after the demolition. Precipitation amounts in the study area were negligible and unlikely to have an effect on the nerve agent.
Coastally trapped wind reversals along the U.S. west coast, which are often accompanied by a northward surge of fog or stratus, are an important warm-season forecast problem due to their impact on coastal maritime activities and airport operations. Previous studies identified several possible dynamic mechanisms that could be responsible for producing these events, yet observational and modeling limitations at the time left these competing interpretations open for debate. In an effort to improve our physical understanding, and ultimately the prediction, of these events, the Office of Naval Research sponsored an Accelerated Research Initiative in Coastal Meteorology during the years 1993–98 to study these and other related coastal meteorological phenomena. This effort included two field programs to study coastally trapped disturbances as well as numerous modeling studies to explore key dynamic mechanisms. This paper describes the various efforts that occurred under this program to provide an advancement in our understanding of these disturbances. While not all issues have been solved, the synoptic and mesoscale aspects of these events are considerably better understood.
Coastally trapped wind reversals along the U.S. west coast, which are often accompanied by a northward surge of fog or stratus, are an important warm-season forecast problem due to their impact on coastal maritime activities and airport operations. Previous studies identified several possible dynamic mechanisms that could be responsible for producing these events, yet observational and modeling limitations at the time left these competing interpretations open for debate. In an effort to improve our physical understanding, and ultimately the prediction, of these events, the Office of Naval Research sponsored an Accelerated Research Initiative in Coastal Meteorology during the years 1993–98 to study these and other related coastal meteorological phenomena. This effort included two field programs to study coastally trapped disturbances as well as numerous modeling studies to explore key dynamic mechanisms. This paper describes the various efforts that occurred under this program to provide an advancement in our understanding of these disturbances. While not all issues have been solved, the synoptic and mesoscale aspects of these events are considerably better understood.
Some of the highlights of an experiment designed to study coastal atmospheric phenomena along the California coast (Coastal Waves 1996 experiment) are described. This study was designed to address several problems, including the cross-shore variability and turbulent structure of the marine boundary layer, the influence of the coast on the development of the marine layer and clouds, the ageostrophy of the flow, the dynamics of trapped events, the parameterization of surface fluxes, and the supercriticality of the marine layer.
Based in Monterey, California, the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) C-130 Hercules and the University of North Carolina Piper Seneca obtained a comprehensive set of measurements on the structure of the marine layer. The study focused on the effects of prominent topographic features on the wind. Downstream of capes and points, narrow bands of high winds are frequently encountered. The NCAR-designed Scanning Aerosol Backscatter Lidar (SABL) provided a unique opportunity to connect changes in the depth of the boundary layer with specific features in the dynamics of the flow field.
An integral part of the experiment was the use of numerical models as forecast and diagnostic tools. The Naval Research Laboratory's Coupled Ocean Atmosphere Model System (COAMPS) provided high-resolution forecasts of the wind field in the vicinity of capes and points, which aided the deployment of the aircraft. Subsequently, this model and the MIUU (University of Uppsala) numerical model were used to support the analysis of the field data.
These are some of the most comprehensive measurements of the topographically forced marine layer that have been collected. SABL proved to be an exceptionally useful tool to resolve the small-scale structure of the boundary layer and, combined with in situ turbulence measurements, provides new insight into the structure of the marine atmosphere. Measurements were made sufficiently far offshore to distinguish between the coastal and open ocean effects. COAMPS proved to be an excellent forecast tool and both it and the MIUU model are integral parts of the ongoing analysis. The results highlight the large spatial variability that occurs directly in response to topographic effects. Routine measurements are insufficient to resolve this variability. Numerical weather prediction model boundary conditions cannot properly define the forecast system and often underestimate the wind speed and surface wave conditions in the nearshore region.
This study was a collaborative effort between the National Science Foundation, the Office of Naval Research, the Naval Research Laboratory, and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration.
Some of the highlights of an experiment designed to study coastal atmospheric phenomena along the California coast (Coastal Waves 1996 experiment) are described. This study was designed to address several problems, including the cross-shore variability and turbulent structure of the marine boundary layer, the influence of the coast on the development of the marine layer and clouds, the ageostrophy of the flow, the dynamics of trapped events, the parameterization of surface fluxes, and the supercriticality of the marine layer.
Based in Monterey, California, the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) C-130 Hercules and the University of North Carolina Piper Seneca obtained a comprehensive set of measurements on the structure of the marine layer. The study focused on the effects of prominent topographic features on the wind. Downstream of capes and points, narrow bands of high winds are frequently encountered. The NCAR-designed Scanning Aerosol Backscatter Lidar (SABL) provided a unique opportunity to connect changes in the depth of the boundary layer with specific features in the dynamics of the flow field.
An integral part of the experiment was the use of numerical models as forecast and diagnostic tools. The Naval Research Laboratory's Coupled Ocean Atmosphere Model System (COAMPS) provided high-resolution forecasts of the wind field in the vicinity of capes and points, which aided the deployment of the aircraft. Subsequently, this model and the MIUU (University of Uppsala) numerical model were used to support the analysis of the field data.
These are some of the most comprehensive measurements of the topographically forced marine layer that have been collected. SABL proved to be an exceptionally useful tool to resolve the small-scale structure of the boundary layer and, combined with in situ turbulence measurements, provides new insight into the structure of the marine atmosphere. Measurements were made sufficiently far offshore to distinguish between the coastal and open ocean effects. COAMPS proved to be an excellent forecast tool and both it and the MIUU model are integral parts of the ongoing analysis. The results highlight the large spatial variability that occurs directly in response to topographic effects. Routine measurements are insufficient to resolve this variability. Numerical weather prediction model boundary conditions cannot properly define the forecast system and often underestimate the wind speed and surface wave conditions in the nearshore region.
This study was a collaborative effort between the National Science Foundation, the Office of Naval Research, the Naval Research Laboratory, and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration.
