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- Author or Editor: Timothy A. Coleman x
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Abstract
Apparent interactions between ducted gravity waves and preexisting mesocyclones are investigated. Preliminary analyses of Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) observations from several cases reveal that the intersection of fine lines, whose propagation speed is consistent with that of gravity waves, and existing mesocyclones leads to an increase in the rotational velocity of the mesocyclone. Utilizing simplified ducted wave kinematics and the vorticity equation, changes in vorticity associated with convergence–divergence and perturbation wind shear within the gravity wave are examined. Convergence ahead of wave ridges may be significant, causing mesocyclone intensification through vorticity stretching. It will also be shown that a wave may significantly change the vertical wind shear and streamwise vorticity in storm inflow. A simple one-dimensional model is presented, which shows that vorticity decreases temporarily ahead of the wave ridge, then increases rapidly behind the ridge as positive tilting and stretching act together. The mesocyclone vorticity reaches a peak just ahead of the wave ridge, then begins to rapidly decrease behind the ridge. Model results compared very well to actual measurements in a sample case in which a mesocyclone interacted with two gravity waves of different amplitudes.
Abstract
Apparent interactions between ducted gravity waves and preexisting mesocyclones are investigated. Preliminary analyses of Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) observations from several cases reveal that the intersection of fine lines, whose propagation speed is consistent with that of gravity waves, and existing mesocyclones leads to an increase in the rotational velocity of the mesocyclone. Utilizing simplified ducted wave kinematics and the vorticity equation, changes in vorticity associated with convergence–divergence and perturbation wind shear within the gravity wave are examined. Convergence ahead of wave ridges may be significant, causing mesocyclone intensification through vorticity stretching. It will also be shown that a wave may significantly change the vertical wind shear and streamwise vorticity in storm inflow. A simple one-dimensional model is presented, which shows that vorticity decreases temporarily ahead of the wave ridge, then increases rapidly behind the ridge as positive tilting and stretching act together. The mesocyclone vorticity reaches a peak just ahead of the wave ridge, then begins to rapidly decrease behind the ridge. Model results compared very well to actual measurements in a sample case in which a mesocyclone interacted with two gravity waves of different amplitudes.
Abstract
This study uses data from a microwave profiling radiometer (MPR), along with 915-MHz wind profiler, Doppler radar, and surface data to quantify the kinematic and thermodynamic effects of two wave features, an undular bore and a soliton, on the nocturnal boundary layer (NBL) at high temporal resolution. Both wave features passed directly over the MPR and the wind profiler, allowing for detailed analyses. The effects of the wave features on the convective environment are examined, and convective initiation (CI) associated with the wave features is discussed.
The undular bore was illustrated well in Doppler velocity data, and profiler measurements indicated that it produced four wavelengths of upward and downward motion. MPR-derived time–height sections of potential temperature and mixing ratio showed an increase in the depth of the stable boundary layer, along with a decrease in stability, partially associated with mixing of the NBL. The soliton produced a temporary decrease in the depth of the NBL, and also produced destabilization. Trajectory analyses were performed assuming the wave features were two-dimensional, allowing a time-to-space conversion of profiler data. Trajectory analyses, in addition to propagation speed, confirm that the wave features were indeed a bore and a soliton, and that there was vertical divergence in the NBL, likely associated with the decrease in static stability.
MPR data were also used to produce time series of convective parameters, including CAPE, convective inhibition (CIN), and the level of free convection (LFC). The CIN was initially too large for free convection despite sufficient CAPE, but MPR data showed that the CIN decreased by more than 50% upon passage of the bore, and again with the soliton. The waves also decreased the LFC due to cooling above the NBL and slight warming near the surface in the bore. Both the reduction in CIN and the lowering of the LFC made convection more likely. Convective initiation occurred behind both wave features, and the vertical motion provided by the waves may have also aided in this CI.
Abstract
This study uses data from a microwave profiling radiometer (MPR), along with 915-MHz wind profiler, Doppler radar, and surface data to quantify the kinematic and thermodynamic effects of two wave features, an undular bore and a soliton, on the nocturnal boundary layer (NBL) at high temporal resolution. Both wave features passed directly over the MPR and the wind profiler, allowing for detailed analyses. The effects of the wave features on the convective environment are examined, and convective initiation (CI) associated with the wave features is discussed.
The undular bore was illustrated well in Doppler velocity data, and profiler measurements indicated that it produced four wavelengths of upward and downward motion. MPR-derived time–height sections of potential temperature and mixing ratio showed an increase in the depth of the stable boundary layer, along with a decrease in stability, partially associated with mixing of the NBL. The soliton produced a temporary decrease in the depth of the NBL, and also produced destabilization. Trajectory analyses were performed assuming the wave features were two-dimensional, allowing a time-to-space conversion of profiler data. Trajectory analyses, in addition to propagation speed, confirm that the wave features were indeed a bore and a soliton, and that there was vertical divergence in the NBL, likely associated with the decrease in static stability.
MPR data were also used to produce time series of convective parameters, including CAPE, convective inhibition (CIN), and the level of free convection (LFC). The CIN was initially too large for free convection despite sufficient CAPE, but MPR data showed that the CIN decreased by more than 50% upon passage of the bore, and again with the soliton. The waves also decreased the LFC due to cooling above the NBL and slight warming near the surface in the bore. Both the reduction in CIN and the lowering of the LFC made convection more likely. Convective initiation occurred behind both wave features, and the vertical motion provided by the waves may have also aided in this CI.
The Proposed 1883 Holden Tornado Warning System
Its Genius and Its Applications Today
In the four years before the U.S. Army Signal Corps weather program banned the use of the word “tornado” in its forecasts starting in 1886, Sgt. John P. Finley headed up a program to document and study local storms, including tornadoes. Upon examination of Finley's findings, astronomer Edward S. Holden proposed an automatic local tornado warning system, using telegraph wires, in 1883. He felt that a system that could provide the residents of a town even 5-min warning could save lives. The system he proposed was not only fascinating, but three different aspects of it are still, either directly or indirectly, in use today.
In the four years before the U.S. Army Signal Corps weather program banned the use of the word “tornado” in its forecasts starting in 1886, Sgt. John P. Finley headed up a program to document and study local storms, including tornadoes. Upon examination of Finley's findings, astronomer Edward S. Holden proposed an automatic local tornado warning system, using telegraph wires, in 1883. He felt that a system that could provide the residents of a town even 5-min warning could save lives. The system he proposed was not only fascinating, but three different aspects of it are still, either directly or indirectly, in use today.
Abstract
The “impedance relation” between the wind perturbation within an ageostrophic atmospheric disturbance and its pressure perturbation and intrinsic propagation speed has been in use for decades. The correlation between wind and pressure perturbation was established through this relation. However, a simple Lagrangian model of an air parcel traversing an idealized sinusoidal wave in the pressure field indicates that the impedance relation produces significant errors. Examination of the nonlinearized horizontal momentum equation with a sinusoidal disturbance in pressure reveals an additional nonlinear term in the impedance relation, not previously included.
In this paper, the impedance relation is rederived, with the solution being the original equation with the addition of the nonlinear term. The new equation is then evaluated against the Lagrangian model of an air parcel traversing an idealized gravity wave, as well as three observed cases. It is shown that the new impedance relation is indeed more accurate in predicting wind perturbations in disturbances based on pressure perturbations and intrinsic speed than the accepted equation. Implications for determination of the intrinsic phase speed of a disturbance when pressure and wind perturbations are known (another widely used application of the impedance relation) are also discussed.
Abstract
The “impedance relation” between the wind perturbation within an ageostrophic atmospheric disturbance and its pressure perturbation and intrinsic propagation speed has been in use for decades. The correlation between wind and pressure perturbation was established through this relation. However, a simple Lagrangian model of an air parcel traversing an idealized sinusoidal wave in the pressure field indicates that the impedance relation produces significant errors. Examination of the nonlinearized horizontal momentum equation with a sinusoidal disturbance in pressure reveals an additional nonlinear term in the impedance relation, not previously included.
In this paper, the impedance relation is rederived, with the solution being the original equation with the addition of the nonlinear term. The new equation is then evaluated against the Lagrangian model of an air parcel traversing an idealized gravity wave, as well as three observed cases. It is shown that the new impedance relation is indeed more accurate in predicting wind perturbations in disturbances based on pressure perturbations and intrinsic speed than the accepted equation. Implications for determination of the intrinsic phase speed of a disturbance when pressure and wind perturbations are known (another widely used application of the impedance relation) are also discussed.
Abstract
In this paper, an objective analysis of spatial tornado risk in the United States is performed, using a somewhat different dataset than in some previous tornado climatologies. The focus is on significant tornadoes because their reporting frequency has remained fairly stable for several decades. Also, data before 1973 are excluded, since those tornadoes were rated after the fact and were often overrated. Tornado pathlength within the vicinity of a grid point is used to show tornado risk, as opposed to tornado days or the total number of reported tornadoes. The possibility that many tornadoes in the Great Plains were underrated due to the lack of damage indicators, causing a low bias in the number of significant tornadoes there, is mostly discounted through several analyses. The kernel density analysis of 1973–2011 significant tornadoes performed herein shows that the area of highest risk for tornadoes in the United States extends roughly from Oklahoma to Tennessee and northwestern Georgia, with the highest risk in the southeastern United States, from central Arkansas across most of Mississippi and northern Alabama.
Abstract
In this paper, an objective analysis of spatial tornado risk in the United States is performed, using a somewhat different dataset than in some previous tornado climatologies. The focus is on significant tornadoes because their reporting frequency has remained fairly stable for several decades. Also, data before 1973 are excluded, since those tornadoes were rated after the fact and were often overrated. Tornado pathlength within the vicinity of a grid point is used to show tornado risk, as opposed to tornado days or the total number of reported tornadoes. The possibility that many tornadoes in the Great Plains were underrated due to the lack of damage indicators, causing a low bias in the number of significant tornadoes there, is mostly discounted through several analyses. The kernel density analysis of 1973–2011 significant tornadoes performed herein shows that the area of highest risk for tornadoes in the United States extends roughly from Oklahoma to Tennessee and northwestern Georgia, with the highest risk in the southeastern United States, from central Arkansas across most of Mississippi and northern Alabama.
Abstract
Ducted gravity waves and wake lows have been associated with numerous documented cases of “severe” winds (>25 m s−1) and wind damage. These winds are associated with the pressure perturbations and transient mesoscale pressure gradients occurring in many gravity waves and wake lows. However, not all wake lows and gravity waves produce significant winds nor wind damage. In this paper, the factors that affect the surface winds produced by ducted gravity waves and wake lows are reviewed and examined. It is shown theoretically that the factors most conducive to high surface winds include a large-amplitude pressure disturbance, a slow intrinsic speed of propagation, and an ambient wind with the same sign as the pressure perturbation (i.e., a headwind for a pressure trough). Multiple case studies are presented, contrasting gravity waves and wake lows with varying amplitudes, intrinsic speeds, and background winds. In some cases high winds occurred, while in others they did not. In each case, the factor(s) responsible for significant winds, or the lack thereof, are discussed. It is hoped that operational forecasters will be able to, in some cases, compute these factors in real time, to ascertain in more detail the threat of damaging wind from an approaching ducted gravity wave or wake low.
Abstract
Ducted gravity waves and wake lows have been associated with numerous documented cases of “severe” winds (>25 m s−1) and wind damage. These winds are associated with the pressure perturbations and transient mesoscale pressure gradients occurring in many gravity waves and wake lows. However, not all wake lows and gravity waves produce significant winds nor wind damage. In this paper, the factors that affect the surface winds produced by ducted gravity waves and wake lows are reviewed and examined. It is shown theoretically that the factors most conducive to high surface winds include a large-amplitude pressure disturbance, a slow intrinsic speed of propagation, and an ambient wind with the same sign as the pressure perturbation (i.e., a headwind for a pressure trough). Multiple case studies are presented, contrasting gravity waves and wake lows with varying amplitudes, intrinsic speeds, and background winds. In some cases high winds occurred, while in others they did not. In each case, the factor(s) responsible for significant winds, or the lack thereof, are discussed. It is hoped that operational forecasters will be able to, in some cases, compute these factors in real time, to ascertain in more detail the threat of damaging wind from an approaching ducted gravity wave or wake low.
Abstract
The kinematics and thermodynamics of wake lows have been extensively examined in the literature. However, there has been relatively little focus on the widespread, sometimes very strong winds associated with wake lows. Some wake lows are, essentially, severe local storms, producing widespread and sometimes intense damage, similar to that of a derecho, but they occur in environments supporting elevated convection, a phenomenon not often perceived as a significant wind damage threat. Three significant wake lows that affected Alabama and/or Georgia, producing widespread (25 000–50 000 km2) wind damage, and local wind gusts near 25 m s−1, are reviewed in detail. The environments and morphology of the wake lows are addressed, using radar, surface, and upper-air data.
Abstract
The kinematics and thermodynamics of wake lows have been extensively examined in the literature. However, there has been relatively little focus on the widespread, sometimes very strong winds associated with wake lows. Some wake lows are, essentially, severe local storms, producing widespread and sometimes intense damage, similar to that of a derecho, but they occur in environments supporting elevated convection, a phenomenon not often perceived as a significant wind damage threat. Three significant wake lows that affected Alabama and/or Georgia, producing widespread (25 000–50 000 km2) wind damage, and local wind gusts near 25 m s−1, are reviewed in detail. The environments and morphology of the wake lows are addressed, using radar, surface, and upper-air data.
Abstract
A visually impressive undular bore moved across much of Iowa on 2 October 2007, and video animations were captured by numerous Webcams. The bore was sampled very well by Doppler radar at close range, and also by the high-density mesoscale network of surface stations in place over Iowa and 1-min Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) surface data at Des Moines, Iowa. Radar and surface observations are presented, along with a brief analysis of the structure of the bore.
Abstract
A visually impressive undular bore moved across much of Iowa on 2 October 2007, and video animations were captured by numerous Webcams. The bore was sampled very well by Doppler radar at close range, and also by the high-density mesoscale network of surface stations in place over Iowa and 1-min Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) surface data at Des Moines, Iowa. Radar and surface observations are presented, along with a brief analysis of the structure of the bore.
Abstract
The electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) associated with two lightning flashes on 22 July 2008 in central Alabama produced audible clicking sounds. These clicks were observed almost simultaneously with the lightning flashes, but a significant period of time before the thunder. The lightning flashes and associated sounds were recorded in digital video and audio by a video camera. Based on theories primarily developed to explain reports of sounds associated with aurora and meteors entering the earth’s atmosphere, it appears that the sounds were associated with transduction of the electromagnetic energy at audible frequencies into vibrations in objects near the camera. Coronal discharges are also possible. Examination of spectrograms of the clicks and the subsequent thunder, and comparison to measurements of the normalized light intensity in each frame of video, show that the clicks must have been associated with sounds in nearby objects. Therefore, the sounds were associated with the lightning EMP.
Abstract
The electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) associated with two lightning flashes on 22 July 2008 in central Alabama produced audible clicking sounds. These clicks were observed almost simultaneously with the lightning flashes, but a significant period of time before the thunder. The lightning flashes and associated sounds were recorded in digital video and audio by a video camera. Based on theories primarily developed to explain reports of sounds associated with aurora and meteors entering the earth’s atmosphere, it appears that the sounds were associated with transduction of the electromagnetic energy at audible frequencies into vibrations in objects near the camera. Coronal discharges are also possible. Examination of spectrograms of the clicks and the subsequent thunder, and comparison to measurements of the normalized light intensity in each frame of video, show that the clicks must have been associated with sounds in nearby objects. Therefore, the sounds were associated with the lightning EMP.
Abstract
On 6 May 2007, an intense atmospheric undular bore moved over eastern Iowa. A “Webcam” in Tama, Iowa, captured dramatic images of the effects of the bore and associated gravity waves on cloud features, because its viewing angle was almost normal to the propagation direction of the waves. The time lapse of these images has become a well-known illustration of atmospheric gravity waves. The environment was favorable for bore formation, with a wave-reflecting unstable layer above a low-level stable layer. Surface pressure and wind data are correlated for the waves in the bore, and horizontal wind oscillations are also shown by Doppler radar data. Quantitative analysis of the time-lapse photography shows that the sky brightens in wave troughs because of subsidence and darkens in wave ridges because of ascent.
Abstract
On 6 May 2007, an intense atmospheric undular bore moved over eastern Iowa. A “Webcam” in Tama, Iowa, captured dramatic images of the effects of the bore and associated gravity waves on cloud features, because its viewing angle was almost normal to the propagation direction of the waves. The time lapse of these images has become a well-known illustration of atmospheric gravity waves. The environment was favorable for bore formation, with a wave-reflecting unstable layer above a low-level stable layer. Surface pressure and wind data are correlated for the waves in the bore, and horizontal wind oscillations are also shown by Doppler radar data. Quantitative analysis of the time-lapse photography shows that the sky brightens in wave troughs because of subsidence and darkens in wave ridges because of ascent.
