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Abstract
Numerically modeled turbulence simulated by the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting Model (ARW) is evaluated with turbulence measurements from NOAA’s high-resolution Doppler lidar on the NOAA Research Vessel Ronald H. Brown during the Variability of the American Monsoon Systems (VAMOS) Ocean–Cloud–Atmosphere–Land Study—Regional Experiment (VOCALS-Rex) field program. A nonprecipitating nocturnal marine stratocumulus case is examined, and a nudging technique is applied to allow turbulence to spin up and come into a statistically stationary state with the initial observed cloud field. This “stationary” state is then used as the initial condition for the subsequent free-running simulation. The comparison shows that the modeled turbulence is consistently weaker than that observed. For the same resolution, the turbulence becomes stronger, especially for the horizontal component, as the length of the horizontal domain increases from 6.4 to 25.6 km. Analysis of the power spectral density shows that, even for the largest domain, the horizontal component of the turbulence is limited by the upper limit of the domain size; supporting evidence from past studies is provided. Results suggest that convergence is expected for (i) energy spectra of turbulence with a sufficiently large domain and (ii) liquid water path with an adequately large domain and fine resolution. Additional tests are performed by changing momentum advection and turning off subgrid-scale diffusion. These exhibit more significant changes in turbulence characteristics compared to the sensitivity to domain size and resolution, suggesting that the model behavior is essentially established by the configuration of the model dynamics and physics and that the simulation only gradually improves when domain size and resolution are increased.
Abstract
Numerically modeled turbulence simulated by the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting Model (ARW) is evaluated with turbulence measurements from NOAA’s high-resolution Doppler lidar on the NOAA Research Vessel Ronald H. Brown during the Variability of the American Monsoon Systems (VAMOS) Ocean–Cloud–Atmosphere–Land Study—Regional Experiment (VOCALS-Rex) field program. A nonprecipitating nocturnal marine stratocumulus case is examined, and a nudging technique is applied to allow turbulence to spin up and come into a statistically stationary state with the initial observed cloud field. This “stationary” state is then used as the initial condition for the subsequent free-running simulation. The comparison shows that the modeled turbulence is consistently weaker than that observed. For the same resolution, the turbulence becomes stronger, especially for the horizontal component, as the length of the horizontal domain increases from 6.4 to 25.6 km. Analysis of the power spectral density shows that, even for the largest domain, the horizontal component of the turbulence is limited by the upper limit of the domain size; supporting evidence from past studies is provided. Results suggest that convergence is expected for (i) energy spectra of turbulence with a sufficiently large domain and (ii) liquid water path with an adequately large domain and fine resolution. Additional tests are performed by changing momentum advection and turning off subgrid-scale diffusion. These exhibit more significant changes in turbulence characteristics compared to the sensitivity to domain size and resolution, suggesting that the model behavior is essentially established by the configuration of the model dynamics and physics and that the simulation only gradually improves when domain size and resolution are increased.
Abstract
Profiles of mean winds and turbulence were measured by the High Resolution Doppler lidar in the strong-wind stable boundary layer (SBL) with continuous turbulence. The turbulence quantity measured was the variance of the streamwise wind velocity component σ 2 u . This variance is a component of the turbulence kinetic energy (TKE), and it is shown to be numerically approximately equal to TKE for stable conditions—profiles of σ 2 u are therefore equivalent to profiles of TKE. Mean-wind profiles showed low-level jet (LLJ) structure for most of the profiles, which represented 10-min averages of mean and fluctuating quantities throughout each of the six nights studied. Heights were normalized by the height of the first LLJ maximum above the surface ZX , and the velocity scale used was the speed of the jet UX , which is shown to be superior to the friction velocity u * as a velocity scale. The major results were 1) the ratio of the maximum value of the streamwise standard deviation to the LLJ speed σu /UX was found to be 0.05, and 2) the three most common σ 2 u profile shapes were determined by stability (or Richardson number Ri). The least stable profile shapes had the maximum σ 2 u at the surface decreasing to a minimum at the height of the LLJ; profiles that were somewhat more stable had constant σ 2 u through a portion of the subjet layer; and the most stable of the profiles had a maximum of σ 2 u aloft, although it is important to note that the Ri for even the most stable of the three profile categories averaged less than 0.20. The datasets used in this study were two nights from the Cooperative Atmosphere–Surface Exchange Study 1999 campaign (CASES-99) and four nights from the Lamar Low-Level Jet Project, a wind-energy experiment in southeast Colorado, during September 2003.
Abstract
Profiles of mean winds and turbulence were measured by the High Resolution Doppler lidar in the strong-wind stable boundary layer (SBL) with continuous turbulence. The turbulence quantity measured was the variance of the streamwise wind velocity component σ 2 u . This variance is a component of the turbulence kinetic energy (TKE), and it is shown to be numerically approximately equal to TKE for stable conditions—profiles of σ 2 u are therefore equivalent to profiles of TKE. Mean-wind profiles showed low-level jet (LLJ) structure for most of the profiles, which represented 10-min averages of mean and fluctuating quantities throughout each of the six nights studied. Heights were normalized by the height of the first LLJ maximum above the surface ZX , and the velocity scale used was the speed of the jet UX , which is shown to be superior to the friction velocity u * as a velocity scale. The major results were 1) the ratio of the maximum value of the streamwise standard deviation to the LLJ speed σu /UX was found to be 0.05, and 2) the three most common σ 2 u profile shapes were determined by stability (or Richardson number Ri). The least stable profile shapes had the maximum σ 2 u at the surface decreasing to a minimum at the height of the LLJ; profiles that were somewhat more stable had constant σ 2 u through a portion of the subjet layer; and the most stable of the profiles had a maximum of σ 2 u aloft, although it is important to note that the Ri for even the most stable of the three profile categories averaged less than 0.20. The datasets used in this study were two nights from the Cooperative Atmosphere–Surface Exchange Study 1999 campaign (CASES-99) and four nights from the Lamar Low-Level Jet Project, a wind-energy experiment in southeast Colorado, during September 2003.
Abstract
The NOAA/Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) has two coherent Doppler lidar systems that have been deployed on board research vessels to obtain data during several experiments. The instruments measure the wind velocity relative to the motion of the lidar; therefore, correction for the motion of the platform is required. This article gives a thorough analysis of the correction for lidar velocity measurements. The analysis is general enough to be applied to Doppler velocity measurements from all monostatic ship- and aircraftborne lidars and radars, and generalization to bistatic systems is achievable. The correction is demonstrated using miniature master-oscillator power-amplifier (mini-MOPA) Doppler velocity data obtained during the Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO) experiment.
Abstract
The NOAA/Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) has two coherent Doppler lidar systems that have been deployed on board research vessels to obtain data during several experiments. The instruments measure the wind velocity relative to the motion of the lidar; therefore, correction for the motion of the platform is required. This article gives a thorough analysis of the correction for lidar velocity measurements. The analysis is general enough to be applied to Doppler velocity measurements from all monostatic ship- and aircraftborne lidars and radars, and generalization to bistatic systems is achievable. The correction is demonstrated using miniature master-oscillator power-amplifier (mini-MOPA) Doppler velocity data obtained during the Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO) experiment.
Abstract
The diurnal cycle of marine stratocumulus in cloud-topped boundary layers is examined using ship-based meteorological data obtained during the 2008 Variability of American Monsoon Systems (VAMOS) Ocean–Cloud–Atmosphere–Land Study Regional Experiment (VOCALS-REx). The high temporal and spatial continuity of the ship data, as well as the 31-day sample size, allows the diurnal transition in degree of coupling of the stratocumulus-topped boundary layer to be resolved. The amplitude of diurnal variation was comparable to the magnitude of longitudinal differences between regions east and west of 80°W for most of the cloud, surface, and precipitation variables examined. The diurnal cycle of precipitation is examined in terms of areal coverage, number of drizzle cells, and estimated rain rate. East of 80°W, the drizzle cell frequency and drizzle area peaks just prior to sunrise. West of 80°W, total drizzle area peaks at 0300 local solar time (LST), 2–3 h before sunrise. Peak drizzle cell frequency is 3 times higher west of 80°W compared to east of 80°W. The waning of drizzle several hours prior to the ramp up of shortwave fluxes may be related to the higher peak drizzle frequencies in the west. The ensemble effect of localized subcloud evaporation of precipitation may make drizzle a self-limiting process where the areal density of drizzle cells is sufficiently high. The daytime reduction in vertical velocity variance in a less coupled boundary layer is accompanied by enhanced stratification of potential temperature and a buildup of moisture near the surface.
Abstract
The diurnal cycle of marine stratocumulus in cloud-topped boundary layers is examined using ship-based meteorological data obtained during the 2008 Variability of American Monsoon Systems (VAMOS) Ocean–Cloud–Atmosphere–Land Study Regional Experiment (VOCALS-REx). The high temporal and spatial continuity of the ship data, as well as the 31-day sample size, allows the diurnal transition in degree of coupling of the stratocumulus-topped boundary layer to be resolved. The amplitude of diurnal variation was comparable to the magnitude of longitudinal differences between regions east and west of 80°W for most of the cloud, surface, and precipitation variables examined. The diurnal cycle of precipitation is examined in terms of areal coverage, number of drizzle cells, and estimated rain rate. East of 80°W, the drizzle cell frequency and drizzle area peaks just prior to sunrise. West of 80°W, total drizzle area peaks at 0300 local solar time (LST), 2–3 h before sunrise. Peak drizzle cell frequency is 3 times higher west of 80°W compared to east of 80°W. The waning of drizzle several hours prior to the ramp up of shortwave fluxes may be related to the higher peak drizzle frequencies in the west. The ensemble effect of localized subcloud evaporation of precipitation may make drizzle a self-limiting process where the areal density of drizzle cells is sufficiently high. The daytime reduction in vertical velocity variance in a less coupled boundary layer is accompanied by enhanced stratification of potential temperature and a buildup of moisture near the surface.
Abstract
The Indian Ocean is a frequent site for the initiation of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). The evolution of convection during MJO initiation is intimately linked to the subcloud atmospheric mixed layer (ML). Much of the air entering developing cumulus clouds passes through the cloud base; hence, the properties of the ML are critical in determining the nature of cloud development. The properties and depth of the ML are influenced by horizontal advection, precipitation-driven cold pools, and vertical motion. To address ML behavior during the initiation of the MJO, data from the 2011/12 Dynamics of the MJO Experiment (DYNAMO) are utilized. Observations from the research vessel Revelle are used to document the ML and its modification during the time leading up to the onset phase of the October MJO. The mixed layer depth increased from ∼500 to ∼700 m during the 1–12 October suppressed period, allowing a greater proportion of boundary layer thermals to reach the lifting condensation level and hence promote cloud growth. The ML heat budget defines an equilibrium mixed layer depth that accurately diagnoses the mixed layer depth over the DYNAMO convectively suppressed period, provided that horizontal advection is included. The advection at the Revelle is significantly influenced by low-level convective outflows from the southern ITCZ. The findings also demonstrate a connection between cirrus clouds and their remote impact on ML depth and convective development through a reduction in the ML radiative cooling rate. The emergent behavior of the equilibrium mixed layer has implications for simulating the MJO with models with parameterized cloud and turbulent-scale motions.
Abstract
The Indian Ocean is a frequent site for the initiation of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). The evolution of convection during MJO initiation is intimately linked to the subcloud atmospheric mixed layer (ML). Much of the air entering developing cumulus clouds passes through the cloud base; hence, the properties of the ML are critical in determining the nature of cloud development. The properties and depth of the ML are influenced by horizontal advection, precipitation-driven cold pools, and vertical motion. To address ML behavior during the initiation of the MJO, data from the 2011/12 Dynamics of the MJO Experiment (DYNAMO) are utilized. Observations from the research vessel Revelle are used to document the ML and its modification during the time leading up to the onset phase of the October MJO. The mixed layer depth increased from ∼500 to ∼700 m during the 1–12 October suppressed period, allowing a greater proportion of boundary layer thermals to reach the lifting condensation level and hence promote cloud growth. The ML heat budget defines an equilibrium mixed layer depth that accurately diagnoses the mixed layer depth over the DYNAMO convectively suppressed period, provided that horizontal advection is included. The advection at the Revelle is significantly influenced by low-level convective outflows from the southern ITCZ. The findings also demonstrate a connection between cirrus clouds and their remote impact on ML depth and convective development through a reduction in the ML radiative cooling rate. The emergent behavior of the equilibrium mixed layer has implications for simulating the MJO with models with parameterized cloud and turbulent-scale motions.
Abstract
Observations made during a 24-h period as part of the Variability of the American Monsoon Systems (VAMOS) Ocean–Cloud–Atmosphere–Land Study Regional Experiment (VOCALS-REx) are analyzed to study the radiation and turbulence associated with the stratocumulus-topped marine boundary layer (BL). The first 14 h exhibited a well-mixed (coupled) BL with an average cloud-top radiative flux divergence of ~130 W m−2; the BL was decoupled during the last 10 h with negligible radiative flux divergence. The averaged radiative cooling very close to the cloud top was −9.04 K h−1 in coupled conditions and −3.85 K h−1 in decoupled conditions. This is the first study that combined data from a vertically pointing Doppler cloud radar and a Doppler lidar to yield the vertical velocity structure of the entire BL. The averaged vertical velocity variance and updraft mass flux during coupled conditions were higher than those during decoupled conditions at all levels by a factor of 2 or more. The vertical velocity skewness was negative in the entire BL during coupled conditions, whereas it was weakly positive in the lower third of the BL and negative above during decoupled conditions. A formulation of velocity scale is proposed that includes the effect of cloud-top radiative cooling in addition to the surface buoyancy flux. When scaled by the velocity scale, the vertical velocity variance and coherent downdrafts had similar magnitude during the coupled and decoupled conditions. The coherent updrafts that exhibited a constant profile in the entire BL during both the coupled and decoupled conditions scaled well with the convective velocity scale to a value of ~0.5.
Abstract
Observations made during a 24-h period as part of the Variability of the American Monsoon Systems (VAMOS) Ocean–Cloud–Atmosphere–Land Study Regional Experiment (VOCALS-REx) are analyzed to study the radiation and turbulence associated with the stratocumulus-topped marine boundary layer (BL). The first 14 h exhibited a well-mixed (coupled) BL with an average cloud-top radiative flux divergence of ~130 W m−2; the BL was decoupled during the last 10 h with negligible radiative flux divergence. The averaged radiative cooling very close to the cloud top was −9.04 K h−1 in coupled conditions and −3.85 K h−1 in decoupled conditions. This is the first study that combined data from a vertically pointing Doppler cloud radar and a Doppler lidar to yield the vertical velocity structure of the entire BL. The averaged vertical velocity variance and updraft mass flux during coupled conditions were higher than those during decoupled conditions at all levels by a factor of 2 or more. The vertical velocity skewness was negative in the entire BL during coupled conditions, whereas it was weakly positive in the lower third of the BL and negative above during decoupled conditions. A formulation of velocity scale is proposed that includes the effect of cloud-top radiative cooling in addition to the surface buoyancy flux. When scaled by the velocity scale, the vertical velocity variance and coherent downdrafts had similar magnitude during the coupled and decoupled conditions. The coherent updrafts that exhibited a constant profile in the entire BL during both the coupled and decoupled conditions scaled well with the convective velocity scale to a value of ~0.5.
Abstract
Accurate measurement of wind speed profiles aloft in the marine boundary layer is a difficult challenge. The development of offshore wind energy requires accurate information on wind speeds above the surface at least at the levels occupied by turbine blades. Few measured data are available at these heights, and the temporal and spatial behavior of near-surface winds is often unrepresentative of that at the required heights. As a consequence, numerical model data, another potential source of information, are essentially unverified at these levels of the atmosphere. In this paper, a motion-compensated, high-resolution Doppler lidar–based wind measurement system that is capable of providing needed information on offshore winds at several heights is described. The system has been evaluated and verified in several ways. A sampling of data from the 2004 New England Air Quality Study shows the kind of analyses and information available. Examples include time–height cross sections, time series, profiles, and distributions of quantities such as winds and shear. These analyses show that there is strong spatial and temporal variability associated with the wind field in the marine boundary layer. Winds near the coast show diurnal variations, and frequent occurrences of low-level jets are evident, especially during nocturnal periods. Persistent patterns of spatial variability in the flow field that are due to coastal irregularities should be of particular concern for wind-energy planning, because they affect the representativeness of fixed-location measurements and imply that some areas would be favored for wind-energy production whereas others would not.
Abstract
Accurate measurement of wind speed profiles aloft in the marine boundary layer is a difficult challenge. The development of offshore wind energy requires accurate information on wind speeds above the surface at least at the levels occupied by turbine blades. Few measured data are available at these heights, and the temporal and spatial behavior of near-surface winds is often unrepresentative of that at the required heights. As a consequence, numerical model data, another potential source of information, are essentially unverified at these levels of the atmosphere. In this paper, a motion-compensated, high-resolution Doppler lidar–based wind measurement system that is capable of providing needed information on offshore winds at several heights is described. The system has been evaluated and verified in several ways. A sampling of data from the 2004 New England Air Quality Study shows the kind of analyses and information available. Examples include time–height cross sections, time series, profiles, and distributions of quantities such as winds and shear. These analyses show that there is strong spatial and temporal variability associated with the wind field in the marine boundary layer. Winds near the coast show diurnal variations, and frequent occurrences of low-level jets are evident, especially during nocturnal periods. Persistent patterns of spatial variability in the flow field that are due to coastal irregularities should be of particular concern for wind-energy planning, because they affect the representativeness of fixed-location measurements and imply that some areas would be favored for wind-energy production whereas others would not.
Abstract
A field experiment was performed that demonstrated the ability of a scanning carbon dioxide (CO2) coherent lidar system to measure the concentration distribution of ammonia in a plume from a point source. This application of the differential absorption lidar (DIAL) method used wavelengths of CO2 lasers at 10.288 μm (online) and 10.274 μm (offline). The addition of wind information, which was obtained from Doppler measurements with the same lidar, permitted ammonia flux measurements through a vertical plane. The measurements were performed in the early morning when the atmosphere was stable, cool, and dry. Ammonia fluxes calculated from the lidar data showed satisfactory agreement with the ammonia release rates measured by a flowmeter. Modifications are planned to improve sensitivity and to enable measurement of ambient ammonia concentrations in polluted regions.
Abstract
A field experiment was performed that demonstrated the ability of a scanning carbon dioxide (CO2) coherent lidar system to measure the concentration distribution of ammonia in a plume from a point source. This application of the differential absorption lidar (DIAL) method used wavelengths of CO2 lasers at 10.288 μm (online) and 10.274 μm (offline). The addition of wind information, which was obtained from Doppler measurements with the same lidar, permitted ammonia flux measurements through a vertical plane. The measurements were performed in the early morning when the atmosphere was stable, cool, and dry. Ammonia fluxes calculated from the lidar data showed satisfactory agreement with the ammonia release rates measured by a flowmeter. Modifications are planned to improve sensitivity and to enable measurement of ambient ammonia concentrations in polluted regions.
Addressing the need for high-quality wind information aloft in the layer occupied by turbine rotors (~30–150 m above ground level) is one of many significant challenges facing the wind energy industry. Without wind measurements at heights within the rotor sweep of the turbines, characteristics of the flow in this layer are unknown for wind energy and modeling purposes. Since flow in this layer is often decoupled from the surface, near-surface measurements are prone to errant extrapolation to these heights, and the behavior of the near-surface winds may not reflect that of the upper-level flow.
Addressing the need for high-quality wind information aloft in the layer occupied by turbine rotors (~30–150 m above ground level) is one of many significant challenges facing the wind energy industry. Without wind measurements at heights within the rotor sweep of the turbines, characteristics of the flow in this layer are unknown for wind energy and modeling purposes. Since flow in this layer is often decoupled from the surface, near-surface measurements are prone to errant extrapolation to these heights, and the behavior of the near-surface winds may not reflect that of the upper-level flow.
A Compact, Flexible, and Robust Micropulsed Doppler LidarAbstract
This work details a master oscillator power amplifier (MOPA) microjoule-class pulsed coherent Doppler lidar system configuration designed to measure line-of-sight wind velocities and backscatter intensity of atmospheric aerosols. The instrument is unique in its form factor. It consists of two physically separated modules connected by a 10 m umbilical cable. One module hosts the transceiver, which is composed of the telescope, transmit/receive (T/R) switch, and high-gain optical amplifier, and is housed in a small box (34.3 cm × 34.3 cm × 17.8 cm). The second module contains the data acquisition system and several electro-optical components. This form factor enables deployments on platforms that are otherwise inaccessible by commercial and research instruments of similar design. In this work, optical, electrical, and data acquisition components and configurations of the lidar are detailed and two example deployments are presented. The first deployment describes measurements of a controlled wildfire burn from a small aircraft to measure vertical plume dynamics and fire inflow conditions during summer in Florida. The second presents measurements of the marine boundary layer height and vertical velocity and variance profiles from the Research Vessel (R/V) Thomas Thompson. The new instrument has enabled greater flexibility in field campaigns where previous instruments would have been too costly or space prohibitive to deploy.
Abstract
This work details a master oscillator power amplifier (MOPA) microjoule-class pulsed coherent Doppler lidar system configuration designed to measure line-of-sight wind velocities and backscatter intensity of atmospheric aerosols. The instrument is unique in its form factor. It consists of two physically separated modules connected by a 10 m umbilical cable. One module hosts the transceiver, which is composed of the telescope, transmit/receive (T/R) switch, and high-gain optical amplifier, and is housed in a small box (34.3 cm × 34.3 cm × 17.8 cm). The second module contains the data acquisition system and several electro-optical components. This form factor enables deployments on platforms that are otherwise inaccessible by commercial and research instruments of similar design. In this work, optical, electrical, and data acquisition components and configurations of the lidar are detailed and two example deployments are presented. The first deployment describes measurements of a controlled wildfire burn from a small aircraft to measure vertical plume dynamics and fire inflow conditions during summer in Florida. The second presents measurements of the marine boundary layer height and vertical velocity and variance profiles from the Research Vessel (R/V) Thomas Thompson. The new instrument has enabled greater flexibility in field campaigns where previous instruments would have been too costly or space prohibitive to deploy.
