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Abstract
Twelve acoustic grenade experiments were conducted during the period September 1968–February 1969 from Barrow, Alaska (71N). These measurements were intended to monitor the transition in the thermal structure of the mesosphere from the persistent summertime case to the dynamic and highly variable winter-time case. The disturbed features typical of winter appeared in the high mesosphere in September, and at successively lower altitudes until December, at which time the full winter structure had been established. In early January, a warming at the stratopause began a chain of events which eventually would restore the summertime structure and thus complete the cycle.
Abstract
Twelve acoustic grenade experiments were conducted during the period September 1968–February 1969 from Barrow, Alaska (71N). These measurements were intended to monitor the transition in the thermal structure of the mesosphere from the persistent summertime case to the dynamic and highly variable winter-time case. The disturbed features typical of winter appeared in the high mesosphere in September, and at successively lower altitudes until December, at which time the full winter structure had been established. In early January, a warming at the stratopause began a chain of events which eventually would restore the summertime structure and thus complete the cycle.
Abstract
A high-resolution one-dimensional version of a second-order turbulence closure radiative-convective model, developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory, is used to simulate the interactions among turbulence, radiation, and bulk cloud parameters in stratiform clouds observed during the Arctic Stratus Experiment conducted during June 1980 over the Beaufort Sea. The fidelity of the model to the underlying physics is assessed by comparing the modeled evolution of the cloud-capped boundary layer against data reported for two particular days of observations. Over the period encompassed by these observations, the boundary layer evolved from a well-mixed cloud-capped boundary layer overlying a stable cloudy surface layer to a shallower well-mixed boundary layer with a single upper cloud deck and a clear, diminished, stable surface layer. The model was able to reproduce the observed profiles of the liquid water content, cloud-base height, radiative heating rates, and the mean and turbulence variables over the period of observation fairly well. The formation and eventual dissipation of the surface cloud feature over the period of the simulation was found to be caused by the formation of a stable surface layer as the modeled air mass moved over the relatively cold Beaufort Sea region. Condensation occurred as heat in the surface layer was transported downward toward the sea surface. Eventual dissipation of the surface cloud layer resulted from the transport of moisture in the surface layer downward toward the sea surface. The results show that the subsidence was the major influence on the evolution of the cloud-top height but was not a major factor for dissipation of either cloud layer during the simulation.
Abstract
A high-resolution one-dimensional version of a second-order turbulence closure radiative-convective model, developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory, is used to simulate the interactions among turbulence, radiation, and bulk cloud parameters in stratiform clouds observed during the Arctic Stratus Experiment conducted during June 1980 over the Beaufort Sea. The fidelity of the model to the underlying physics is assessed by comparing the modeled evolution of the cloud-capped boundary layer against data reported for two particular days of observations. Over the period encompassed by these observations, the boundary layer evolved from a well-mixed cloud-capped boundary layer overlying a stable cloudy surface layer to a shallower well-mixed boundary layer with a single upper cloud deck and a clear, diminished, stable surface layer. The model was able to reproduce the observed profiles of the liquid water content, cloud-base height, radiative heating rates, and the mean and turbulence variables over the period of observation fairly well. The formation and eventual dissipation of the surface cloud feature over the period of the simulation was found to be caused by the formation of a stable surface layer as the modeled air mass moved over the relatively cold Beaufort Sea region. Condensation occurred as heat in the surface layer was transported downward toward the sea surface. Eventual dissipation of the surface cloud layer resulted from the transport of moisture in the surface layer downward toward the sea surface. The results show that the subsidence was the major influence on the evolution of the cloud-top height but was not a major factor for dissipation of either cloud layer during the simulation.
Abstract
A high-resolution one-dimensional version of a second-order turbulence radiative–convective model, developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory, is used to simulate the diurnal cycle of the marine stratocumulus cloud-capped boundary layer. The fidelity of the model to the underlying physics is assessed by comparing the model simulation to data taken at San Nicolas Island during the intensive field observation (IFO) of the First International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) Regional Experiment (FIRE), conducted during June and July 1987. The model is able to reproduce the observed diurnal cycle of the liquid water content, cloud-base height, radiative heating or cooling rates, and the mean and turbulence variables fairly well. The mechanisms that cause the diurnal variation and the decoupling of the boundary layer are examined.
The possible role of an imposed diurnal cycle for the subsidence in inducing the cloud-top diurnal cycle observed during the FIRE IFO is also addressed. Three regimes of subsidence influence are identified for the stratocumulus-capped boundary layer. Regimes I and III are characterized by vertical propagation of the inversion height and erratic fluctuation of turbulence in the region of the inversion. Regime II is characterized by a continuum of quasi-equilibrium states that can exist for a range of subsidence values. In this regime, the boundary layer height is fairly insensitive to changes in the subsidence. The boundary layer behavior implied for these regimes is used to explore the effect of a diurnally varying subsidence rate on the diurnal cycle for the cloud-top height.
Abstract
A high-resolution one-dimensional version of a second-order turbulence radiative–convective model, developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory, is used to simulate the diurnal cycle of the marine stratocumulus cloud-capped boundary layer. The fidelity of the model to the underlying physics is assessed by comparing the model simulation to data taken at San Nicolas Island during the intensive field observation (IFO) of the First International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) Regional Experiment (FIRE), conducted during June and July 1987. The model is able to reproduce the observed diurnal cycle of the liquid water content, cloud-base height, radiative heating or cooling rates, and the mean and turbulence variables fairly well. The mechanisms that cause the diurnal variation and the decoupling of the boundary layer are examined.
The possible role of an imposed diurnal cycle for the subsidence in inducing the cloud-top diurnal cycle observed during the FIRE IFO is also addressed. Three regimes of subsidence influence are identified for the stratocumulus-capped boundary layer. Regimes I and III are characterized by vertical propagation of the inversion height and erratic fluctuation of turbulence in the region of the inversion. Regime II is characterized by a continuum of quasi-equilibrium states that can exist for a range of subsidence values. In this regime, the boundary layer height is fairly insensitive to changes in the subsidence. The boundary layer behavior implied for these regimes is used to explore the effect of a diurnally varying subsidence rate on the diurnal cycle for the cloud-top height.
Abstract
Pressure, density, temperature and wind measurements in the upper stratosphere and in the mesosphere resulted from a total of 53 rocket-grenade soundings conducted during the period 1960–1965. Most of the soundings were performed over North America (Wallops Island, 38N and Churchill, 59N) but some results were also obtained over the tropical Atlantic (Ascension Island, 8S) and over Northern Europe (Kronogard, 66N). Soundings were carried out simultaneously at these sites and were coordinated with soundings measing similar parameters over other areas of the globe.
Seasonal and latitudinal variations in the structure and circulation of this region of the atmosphere were derived from the results. Stratosphere temperatures vary with season and latitude in accordance with solar heating rates and with established circulation models. Temperatures above 65 km are substantially warmer in winter than in summer. Average seasonal temperature differences are about 40K at 80 km. They are very pronounced at midlatitudes (Wallops Island) and become even more extreme at high latitudes where in summer mesopause temperatures as low as 140K were observed. Maximum stratopause temperatures were observed during late winter-early summer. At Wallops Island these maxima of about 280K coincided with the period of transition from winter to summer circulation. Temperature profiles for all seasons at all sites intersect between 60 and 65 km at a temperature range of 230 to 240K.
The strong westerly flow in winter shows two pronounced cores, one persistent throughout the winter just above the stratopause, the other somewhat weaker and less persistent near 75 km. Deviations from the zonal flow indicate the existence of meteorological circulation cells on a synoptic scale with the average meridional flaw at Churchill strongly from the north during both summer and winter and at Wallops Island somewhat weaker from the south during the winter.
Abstract
Pressure, density, temperature and wind measurements in the upper stratosphere and in the mesosphere resulted from a total of 53 rocket-grenade soundings conducted during the period 1960–1965. Most of the soundings were performed over North America (Wallops Island, 38N and Churchill, 59N) but some results were also obtained over the tropical Atlantic (Ascension Island, 8S) and over Northern Europe (Kronogard, 66N). Soundings were carried out simultaneously at these sites and were coordinated with soundings measing similar parameters over other areas of the globe.
Seasonal and latitudinal variations in the structure and circulation of this region of the atmosphere were derived from the results. Stratosphere temperatures vary with season and latitude in accordance with solar heating rates and with established circulation models. Temperatures above 65 km are substantially warmer in winter than in summer. Average seasonal temperature differences are about 40K at 80 km. They are very pronounced at midlatitudes (Wallops Island) and become even more extreme at high latitudes where in summer mesopause temperatures as low as 140K were observed. Maximum stratopause temperatures were observed during late winter-early summer. At Wallops Island these maxima of about 280K coincided with the period of transition from winter to summer circulation. Temperature profiles for all seasons at all sites intersect between 60 and 65 km at a temperature range of 230 to 240K.
The strong westerly flow in winter shows two pronounced cores, one persistent throughout the winter just above the stratopause, the other somewhat weaker and less persistent near 75 km. Deviations from the zonal flow indicate the existence of meteorological circulation cells on a synoptic scale with the average meridional flaw at Churchill strongly from the north during both summer and winter and at Wallops Island somewhat weaker from the south during the winter.
Abstract
A mesoscale model is used to simulate the diurnal evolution of sea fog off the northeast Scottish coast observed on 27 April 1984. It is shown that the accuracy of the early part of the forecast is very dependent on the specification of the initial conditions. If the initial description of the fog is sufficiently good the model can accurately erode it during the day and reform it in the following evening. The dependence of the accuracy of the forecasts on vertical resolution is also discussed.
Abstract
A mesoscale model is used to simulate the diurnal evolution of sea fog off the northeast Scottish coast observed on 27 April 1984. It is shown that the accuracy of the early part of the forecast is very dependent on the specification of the initial conditions. If the initial description of the fog is sufficiently good the model can accurately erode it during the day and reform it in the following evening. The dependence of the accuracy of the forecasts on vertical resolution is also discussed.
Abstract
This paper represents the first attempt to use Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) rainfall information to estimate the four-dimensional latent heating structure over the global Tropics for one month (February 1998). The mean latent heating profiles over six oceanic regions [Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment (COARE) Intensive Flux Array (IFA), central Pacific, South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), east Pacific, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic Ocean] and three continental regions (South America, central Africa, and Australia) are estimated and studied. The heating profiles obtained from the results of diagnostic budget studies over a broad range of geographic locations are used to provide comparisons and indirect validation for the heating algorithm–estimated heating profiles. Three different latent heating algorithms, the Goddard Space Flight Center convective–stratiform heating (CSH), the Goddard profiling (GPROF) heating, and the hydrometeor heating (HH) algorithms are used and their results are intercompared. The horizontal distribution or patterns of latent heat release from the three different heating retrieval methods are very similar. They all can identify the areas of major convective activity [i.e., a well-defined Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in the Pacific, a distinct SPCZ] in the global Tropics. The magnitudes of their estimated latent heating release are also in good agreement with each other and with those determined from diagnostic budget studies. However, the major difference among these three heating retrieval algorithms is the altitude of the maximum heating level. The CSH algorithm–estimated heating profiles only show one maximum heating level, and the level varies among convective activity from various geographic locations. These features are in good agreement with diagnostic budget studies. A broader maximum of heating, often with two embedded peaks, is generally derived from applications of the GPROF heating and HH algorithms, and the response of the heating profiles to convective activity is less pronounced. Also, GPROF and HH generally yield heating profiles with a maximum at somewhat lower altitudes than CSH. The impact of different TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) and precipitation radar (PR) rainfall information on latent heating structures was also examined. The rainfall estimated from the PR is smaller than that estimated from the TMI in the Pacific (TOGA COARE IFA, central Pacific, SPCZ, and east Pacific) and Indian Oceans, causing weaker latent heat release in the CSH algorithm–estimated heating. In addition, the larger stratiform amounts derived from the PR over South America and Australia consequently lead to higher maximum heating levels. Sensitivity tests addressing the appropriate selection of latent heating profiles from the CSH lookup table were performed.
Abstract
This paper represents the first attempt to use Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) rainfall information to estimate the four-dimensional latent heating structure over the global Tropics for one month (February 1998). The mean latent heating profiles over six oceanic regions [Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment (COARE) Intensive Flux Array (IFA), central Pacific, South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), east Pacific, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic Ocean] and three continental regions (South America, central Africa, and Australia) are estimated and studied. The heating profiles obtained from the results of diagnostic budget studies over a broad range of geographic locations are used to provide comparisons and indirect validation for the heating algorithm–estimated heating profiles. Three different latent heating algorithms, the Goddard Space Flight Center convective–stratiform heating (CSH), the Goddard profiling (GPROF) heating, and the hydrometeor heating (HH) algorithms are used and their results are intercompared. The horizontal distribution or patterns of latent heat release from the three different heating retrieval methods are very similar. They all can identify the areas of major convective activity [i.e., a well-defined Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in the Pacific, a distinct SPCZ] in the global Tropics. The magnitudes of their estimated latent heating release are also in good agreement with each other and with those determined from diagnostic budget studies. However, the major difference among these three heating retrieval algorithms is the altitude of the maximum heating level. The CSH algorithm–estimated heating profiles only show one maximum heating level, and the level varies among convective activity from various geographic locations. These features are in good agreement with diagnostic budget studies. A broader maximum of heating, often with two embedded peaks, is generally derived from applications of the GPROF heating and HH algorithms, and the response of the heating profiles to convective activity is less pronounced. Also, GPROF and HH generally yield heating profiles with a maximum at somewhat lower altitudes than CSH. The impact of different TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) and precipitation radar (PR) rainfall information on latent heating structures was also examined. The rainfall estimated from the PR is smaller than that estimated from the TMI in the Pacific (TOGA COARE IFA, central Pacific, SPCZ, and east Pacific) and Indian Oceans, causing weaker latent heat release in the CSH algorithm–estimated heating. In addition, the larger stratiform amounts derived from the PR over South America and Australia consequently lead to higher maximum heating levels. Sensitivity tests addressing the appropriate selection of latent heating profiles from the CSH lookup table were performed.
Abstract
A powerful facility for meteorological analysis called the Man Computer Interactive Data Access System (McIDAS) was designed and implemented in the early 1970's at the Space Science and Engineering Center of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Hardware and software experience gained via extensive use of that facility and its derivatives have led to a newer implementation of McIDAS on a larger computer with significant enhancements to the supporting McIDAS software. McIDAS allows remote and local access to a wide range of data from satellites and conventional observations, time lapse displays of imagery data, overlaid graphics. and current and past meteorological data. Available software allows one to perform analysis of a wide range of digital images as well as temperature and moisture sounding data obtained from satellites. McIDAS can generate multicolor composites of conventional and satellite weather data, radar and forecast data in a wide variety of two- and three-dimensional displays as well as time lapse movies of these analyses. These and other capabilities are described in this paper.
Abstract
A powerful facility for meteorological analysis called the Man Computer Interactive Data Access System (McIDAS) was designed and implemented in the early 1970's at the Space Science and Engineering Center of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Hardware and software experience gained via extensive use of that facility and its derivatives have led to a newer implementation of McIDAS on a larger computer with significant enhancements to the supporting McIDAS software. McIDAS allows remote and local access to a wide range of data from satellites and conventional observations, time lapse displays of imagery data, overlaid graphics. and current and past meteorological data. Available software allows one to perform analysis of a wide range of digital images as well as temperature and moisture sounding data obtained from satellites. McIDAS can generate multicolor composites of conventional and satellite weather data, radar and forecast data in a wide variety of two- and three-dimensional displays as well as time lapse movies of these analyses. These and other capabilities are described in this paper.
Abstract
Measurements of the spectra of fluctuations in wind velocity over the sea sensed by three basically different instruments are described. One comparison shows good agreement between spectra from a thrust anemometer and cup anemometers. Another shows that greatly improved precision of spectra derived from a hot wire anemometer can be gained by calibrating the low frequency response against spectra from cup anemometers. The measurements confirm Kolmogoroff's prediction of the existence of a universal form of the spectrum at high wave numbers. The shape of a spectrum of temperature fluctuations agrees with that found by earlier workers.
Abstract
Measurements of the spectra of fluctuations in wind velocity over the sea sensed by three basically different instruments are described. One comparison shows good agreement between spectra from a thrust anemometer and cup anemometers. Another shows that greatly improved precision of spectra derived from a hot wire anemometer can be gained by calibrating the low frequency response against spectra from cup anemometers. The measurements confirm Kolmogoroff's prediction of the existence of a universal form of the spectrum at high wave numbers. The shape of a spectrum of temperature fluctuations agrees with that found by earlier workers.
