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- Author or Editor: Wei Wu x
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Abstract
An optical-electronic technique has been developed for simultaneous, remote measurements of the surface tension and wave attenuation over the water surface. The technique has been fully tested in a laboratory tank, and tried in the field. Sample results of measurements are presented to illustrate that the technique is an effective method for studying the surfactants on the air–sea interface.
Abstract
An optical-electronic technique has been developed for simultaneous, remote measurements of the surface tension and wave attenuation over the water surface. The technique has been fully tested in a laboratory tank, and tried in the field. Sample results of measurements are presented to illustrate that the technique is an effective method for studying the surfactants on the air–sea interface.
Abstract
This study uses the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model to investigate the performance of hail parameterizations of the WRF double-moment 7-class (WDM7), aerosol-aware Thompson (AAT), and National Taiwan University triple-moment (NTU3M) bulk microphysics schemes (BMSs) on a real case of a hailstorm initiated in Shandong Province, China. The maximum hail size is particularly evaluated because it is crucial to hail severity prediction, along with areal coverage and intensity of the 24-h solid precipitation during the simulations. Compared with the radar-derived maximum hail size, the objective analysis shows that the NTU3M scheme has the best score in the forecast skill of hail-fall coverage and size, while two BMSs with single-moment rimed ice species overestimate hail diameters aloft but underpredict the coverage at the surface. A deeper investigation suggests that the derived size tendencies from the three BMSs are comparable to the benchmark solutions from the detailed hailstone growth and melting models. The NTU3M scheme displays the most consistent size tendency of the maximum diameter with the benchmark solution in the growth processes. The behaviors of melted diameter by parameterizations are highly related to the treatments of number concentration, which are consistent with the predicted hail severity and coverage. Finally, the sensitivity study shows that increasing the model resolution does not improve the forecast of the maximum hail size, given the biases in the hail mass budget equations and the parameterization of particle size distribution, with single-moment rimed ice species of the AAT scheme.
Significance Statement
Improving hail-forecasting skill, including the size, severity, and the spatial and temporal coverage of hail fall, has become an important subject for numerical weather prediction models as the model resolution increases. The objective of this study is to investigate the fundamental differences in hail parameterizations of three bulk microphysics schemes that lead to differences in the prediction of severe hail events and the spatial coverage of hail fall, hopefully providing insights into hail prediction with a regional numerical weather prediction model in the future.
Abstract
This study uses the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model to investigate the performance of hail parameterizations of the WRF double-moment 7-class (WDM7), aerosol-aware Thompson (AAT), and National Taiwan University triple-moment (NTU3M) bulk microphysics schemes (BMSs) on a real case of a hailstorm initiated in Shandong Province, China. The maximum hail size is particularly evaluated because it is crucial to hail severity prediction, along with areal coverage and intensity of the 24-h solid precipitation during the simulations. Compared with the radar-derived maximum hail size, the objective analysis shows that the NTU3M scheme has the best score in the forecast skill of hail-fall coverage and size, while two BMSs with single-moment rimed ice species overestimate hail diameters aloft but underpredict the coverage at the surface. A deeper investigation suggests that the derived size tendencies from the three BMSs are comparable to the benchmark solutions from the detailed hailstone growth and melting models. The NTU3M scheme displays the most consistent size tendency of the maximum diameter with the benchmark solution in the growth processes. The behaviors of melted diameter by parameterizations are highly related to the treatments of number concentration, which are consistent with the predicted hail severity and coverage. Finally, the sensitivity study shows that increasing the model resolution does not improve the forecast of the maximum hail size, given the biases in the hail mass budget equations and the parameterization of particle size distribution, with single-moment rimed ice species of the AAT scheme.
Significance Statement
Improving hail-forecasting skill, including the size, severity, and the spatial and temporal coverage of hail fall, has become an important subject for numerical weather prediction models as the model resolution increases. The objective of this study is to investigate the fundamental differences in hail parameterizations of three bulk microphysics schemes that lead to differences in the prediction of severe hail events and the spatial coverage of hail fall, hopefully providing insights into hail prediction with a regional numerical weather prediction model in the future.
Abstract
In the present study, monthly mean objectively analyzed air–sea fluxes (OAFlux) and NCEP–Department of Energy (DOE) reanalysis datasets are employed to investigate air–sea interaction over the subtropical North Pacific during the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) transition phase. A coupled low-frequency mode is identified, for which surface net heat flux and atmospheric circulation changes are strongly coupled during the ENSO transition phase. This mode features anomalous cooling (warming) and low-level anomalous cyclonic (anticyclonic) circulation over the subtropical North Pacific. When this mode is prominent, the atmospheric circulation anomalies lead to SST cooling (warming) through surface heat flux anomalies associated with increases (decreases) in the sea–air temperature and humidity differences induced by anomalous cold (warm) advection. In turn, positive heat flux anomalies induce more surface heating, and the SST cooling (warming) causes less (more) deep convective heating. The anomalous surface heating and deep convective heating contribute significantly to anomalous circulation through the thermal adaptation mechanism (adaptation of atmospheric circulation to vertical differential heating). This positive feedback favors the maintenance of these anomalous winds over the subtropical North Pacific.
Abstract
In the present study, monthly mean objectively analyzed air–sea fluxes (OAFlux) and NCEP–Department of Energy (DOE) reanalysis datasets are employed to investigate air–sea interaction over the subtropical North Pacific during the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) transition phase. A coupled low-frequency mode is identified, for which surface net heat flux and atmospheric circulation changes are strongly coupled during the ENSO transition phase. This mode features anomalous cooling (warming) and low-level anomalous cyclonic (anticyclonic) circulation over the subtropical North Pacific. When this mode is prominent, the atmospheric circulation anomalies lead to SST cooling (warming) through surface heat flux anomalies associated with increases (decreases) in the sea–air temperature and humidity differences induced by anomalous cold (warm) advection. In turn, positive heat flux anomalies induce more surface heating, and the SST cooling (warming) causes less (more) deep convective heating. The anomalous surface heating and deep convective heating contribute significantly to anomalous circulation through the thermal adaptation mechanism (adaptation of atmospheric circulation to vertical differential heating). This positive feedback favors the maintenance of these anomalous winds over the subtropical North Pacific.
Abstract
A spectral model is developed to study the three-dimensional instability of nonlinear viscous symmetric circulations. Two-dimensional solutions of steady nonlinear viscous symmetric circulations are found to be unstable in three dimensions. Four types of unstable modes are identified. The type I mode is characterized by horizontally tilted bands, similar to the tilted primary mode obtained previously by other investigators. This mode may be viewed as a gradual emergence of the tilted primary mode in three dimensions. The remaining three modes are highly three-dimensional and emerge consecutively as the basic-state Richardson number decreases significantly below the critical value. Implications of these modes to the possible secondary instabilities of tilted primary nonlinear circulations are discussed.
Abstract
A spectral model is developed to study the three-dimensional instability of nonlinear viscous symmetric circulations. Two-dimensional solutions of steady nonlinear viscous symmetric circulations are found to be unstable in three dimensions. Four types of unstable modes are identified. The type I mode is characterized by horizontally tilted bands, similar to the tilted primary mode obtained previously by other investigators. This mode may be viewed as a gradual emergence of the tilted primary mode in three dimensions. The remaining three modes are highly three-dimensional and emerge consecutively as the basic-state Richardson number decreases significantly below the critical value. Implications of these modes to the possible secondary instabilities of tilted primary nonlinear circulations are discussed.
On the Impacts of Different Definitions of Maximum Dimension for Nonspherical Particles Recorded by 2D Imaging ProbesAbstract
Knowledge of ice crystal particle size distributions (PSDs) is critical for parameterization schemes for atmospheric models and remote sensing retrieval schemes. Two-dimensional in situ images captured by cloud imaging probes are widely used to derive PSDs in term of maximum particle dimension (
Abstract
Knowledge of ice crystal particle size distributions (PSDs) is critical for parameterization schemes for atmospheric models and remote sensing retrieval schemes. Two-dimensional in situ images captured by cloud imaging probes are widely used to derive PSDs in term of maximum particle dimension (
Abstract
Several functional forms of cloud particle size distributions (PSDs) have been used in numerical modeling and remote sensing retrieval studies of clouds and precipitation, including exponential, gamma, lognormal, and Weibull distributions. However, there is no satisfying theoretical explanation as to why certain distribution forms preferentially occur instead of others. Intuitively, the analytical form of a PSD can be derived by directly solving the general dynamic equation, but no analytical solutions have been found yet. Instead of a process-level approach, the use of the principle of maximum entropy (MaxEnt) for determining the theoretical form of PSDs from the perspective of system is examined here. MaxEnt theory states that the probability density function with the largest information entropy among a group satisfying the given properties of the variable should be chosen. Here, the issue of variability under coordinate transformations that arises using the Gibbs–Shannon definition of entropy is identified, and the use of the concept of relative entropy to avoid these problems is discussed. Focusing on cloud physics, the four-parameter generalized gamma distribution is proposed as the analytical form of a PSD using the principle of maximum (relative) entropy with assumptions on power-law relations among state variables, scale invariance, and a further constraint on the expectation of one state variable (e.g., bulk water mass). The four-parameter generalized gamma distribution is very flexible to accommodate various type of constraints that could be assumed for cloud PSDs.
Abstract
Several functional forms of cloud particle size distributions (PSDs) have been used in numerical modeling and remote sensing retrieval studies of clouds and precipitation, including exponential, gamma, lognormal, and Weibull distributions. However, there is no satisfying theoretical explanation as to why certain distribution forms preferentially occur instead of others. Intuitively, the analytical form of a PSD can be derived by directly solving the general dynamic equation, but no analytical solutions have been found yet. Instead of a process-level approach, the use of the principle of maximum entropy (MaxEnt) for determining the theoretical form of PSDs from the perspective of system is examined here. MaxEnt theory states that the probability density function with the largest information entropy among a group satisfying the given properties of the variable should be chosen. Here, the issue of variability under coordinate transformations that arises using the Gibbs–Shannon definition of entropy is identified, and the use of the concept of relative entropy to avoid these problems is discussed. Focusing on cloud physics, the four-parameter generalized gamma distribution is proposed as the analytical form of a PSD using the principle of maximum (relative) entropy with assumptions on power-law relations among state variables, scale invariance, and a further constraint on the expectation of one state variable (e.g., bulk water mass). The four-parameter generalized gamma distribution is very flexible to accommodate various type of constraints that could be assumed for cloud PSDs.
Abstract
We welcome the opportunity to correct the misunderstandings and misinterpretations contained in Yano’s comment that led him to incorrectly state that Wu and McFarquhar misunderstood the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) principle. As correctly stated by Yano, the principle itself does not suffer from the problem of a lack of invariance. But, as restated in this reply and in Wu and McFarquhar, the commonly used Shannon–Gibbs entropy does suffer from a lack of invariance for coordinate transform when applied in continuous cases, and this problem is resolved by the use of the relative entropy. Further, it is restated that the Wu and McFarquhar derivation of the PSD form using MaxEnt is more general than the formulation by Yano and allows more constraints with any functional relations to be applied. The derivation of Yano is nothing new but the representation of PSDs in other variables.
Abstract
We welcome the opportunity to correct the misunderstandings and misinterpretations contained in Yano’s comment that led him to incorrectly state that Wu and McFarquhar misunderstood the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) principle. As correctly stated by Yano, the principle itself does not suffer from the problem of a lack of invariance. But, as restated in this reply and in Wu and McFarquhar, the commonly used Shannon–Gibbs entropy does suffer from a lack of invariance for coordinate transform when applied in continuous cases, and this problem is resolved by the use of the relative entropy. Further, it is restated that the Wu and McFarquhar derivation of the PSD form using MaxEnt is more general than the formulation by Yano and allows more constraints with any functional relations to be applied. The derivation of Yano is nothing new but the representation of PSDs in other variables.
Abstract
Superimposed on a warming trend, Arctic winter surface air temperature (SAT) exhibits substantial interannual variability, the underlying mechanisms of which are unclear, especially with regard to the role of sea ice variations and atmospheric processes. Here, atmospheric reanalysis data and idealized atmospheric model simulations are used to reveal the mechanisms by which sea ice variations and atmospheric anomalous conditions affect interannual variations in wintertime Arctic SAT. Results show that near-surface interannual warming in the Arctic is accompanied by comparable warming throughout large parts of the Arctic troposphere and large-scale anomalous atmospheric circulation patterns. Within the Arctic, changes in large-scale atmospheric circulations due to internal atmospheric variability explain a substantial fraction of interannual variation in SAT and tropospheric temperatures, which lead to an increase in moisture and downward longwave radiation, with the rest likely coming from sea ice–related and other surface processes. Arctic winter sea ice loss allows the ocean to release more heat and moisture, which enhances Arctic warming; however, this effect on SAT is confined to the ice-retreat area and has a limited influence on large-scale atmospheric circulations.
Abstract
Superimposed on a warming trend, Arctic winter surface air temperature (SAT) exhibits substantial interannual variability, the underlying mechanisms of which are unclear, especially with regard to the role of sea ice variations and atmospheric processes. Here, atmospheric reanalysis data and idealized atmospheric model simulations are used to reveal the mechanisms by which sea ice variations and atmospheric anomalous conditions affect interannual variations in wintertime Arctic SAT. Results show that near-surface interannual warming in the Arctic is accompanied by comparable warming throughout large parts of the Arctic troposphere and large-scale anomalous atmospheric circulation patterns. Within the Arctic, changes in large-scale atmospheric circulations due to internal atmospheric variability explain a substantial fraction of interannual variation in SAT and tropospheric temperatures, which lead to an increase in moisture and downward longwave radiation, with the rest likely coming from sea ice–related and other surface processes. Arctic winter sea ice loss allows the ocean to release more heat and moisture, which enhances Arctic warming; however, this effect on SAT is confined to the ice-retreat area and has a limited influence on large-scale atmospheric circulations.
Abstract
The Beaufort Sea high (BSH) plays an important role in forcing Arctic sea ice and the Beaufort Gyre. This study examines the variability and long-term trends of atmospheric circulation over the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas using the ECMWF Interim Re-Analysis (ERA-Interim) for the period 1979–2012. Because of the mobility of the BSH through the year, EOF analysis is applied to the sea level pressure (SLP) field in order to investigate the principal patterns of BSH variability. In each season, the three leading EOF modes explain nearly 90% of the total variance and reflect a strengthened or weakened BSH centered over the western Arctic Ocean (EOF1), a north–south dipole-like SLP anomaly (EOF2), and a west–east dipole-like SLP anomaly (EOF3), respectively. These three EOF modes offer distinct influences on local climate in each season and have different connections with the large-scale climate variability modes in winter. In particular, the second principal component (PC2) associated with EOF2 in the autumn exhibits a tendency toward high-index polarity significant at the 5% level, and is related to strongly reduced sea ice extent.
Further, the authors have detected significant anticyclonic trends among surface wind fields associated with a strengthened BSH during summer and autumn, but significant cyclonic trends associated with a weakened BSH during early midwinter, consistent with significant trends in SLP gradients between western Arctic Ocean and the adjoining landmass. Comparison with forced trends of surface winds from various simulations from the IPCC Fifth Assessement Report (AR5) indicates that summertime changes in atmospheric circulation cannot be explained by natural external forcing or lower boundary forcings and may instead be attributable to external anthropogenic forcing.
Abstract
The Beaufort Sea high (BSH) plays an important role in forcing Arctic sea ice and the Beaufort Gyre. This study examines the variability and long-term trends of atmospheric circulation over the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas using the ECMWF Interim Re-Analysis (ERA-Interim) for the period 1979–2012. Because of the mobility of the BSH through the year, EOF analysis is applied to the sea level pressure (SLP) field in order to investigate the principal patterns of BSH variability. In each season, the three leading EOF modes explain nearly 90% of the total variance and reflect a strengthened or weakened BSH centered over the western Arctic Ocean (EOF1), a north–south dipole-like SLP anomaly (EOF2), and a west–east dipole-like SLP anomaly (EOF3), respectively. These three EOF modes offer distinct influences on local climate in each season and have different connections with the large-scale climate variability modes in winter. In particular, the second principal component (PC2) associated with EOF2 in the autumn exhibits a tendency toward high-index polarity significant at the 5% level, and is related to strongly reduced sea ice extent.
Further, the authors have detected significant anticyclonic trends among surface wind fields associated with a strengthened BSH during summer and autumn, but significant cyclonic trends associated with a weakened BSH during early midwinter, consistent with significant trends in SLP gradients between western Arctic Ocean and the adjoining landmass. Comparison with forced trends of surface winds from various simulations from the IPCC Fifth Assessement Report (AR5) indicates that summertime changes in atmospheric circulation cannot be explained by natural external forcing or lower boundary forcings and may instead be attributable to external anthropogenic forcing.
Abstract
One-dimensional calculations are carried out for the time evolution of the equatorial lower stratospheric mean zonal wind forced by time-varying equatorial Kelvin and mixed Rossby–gravity waves. If the time variation of the wave momentum forcing is given by a steady forcing plus a sinusoidal modulation, a tendency toward phase locking between the period of the wave forcing’s modulation and the period of the resulting mean wind oscillation is found in some cases, depending on the period and magnitude of the wave forcing as well as the phase difference between variations of the easterly and westerly momentum fluxes. Regime diagrams are shown to make these dependences clearer. If the wave forcings are irregularly modulated, the resulting time variation of the wind oscillation shows no resemblance to the imposed time variation of the wave forcing. These simple calculations are used to indicate that for nonlinear phenomena, such as the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO), one cannot conclude that a lack of correlation between two data records means that these are physically unrelated. When the equatorial wave momentum fluxes are modulated according to the eastern Pacific sea surface temperatures, the simulated time variation of the QBO period sometimes (depending on the phase relation between the easterly and westerly time-varying fluxes) shows a great resemblance to the observations. This suggests that easterly and westerly momentum fluxes into the equatorial lower stratosphere are related to SST variations.
Abstract
One-dimensional calculations are carried out for the time evolution of the equatorial lower stratospheric mean zonal wind forced by time-varying equatorial Kelvin and mixed Rossby–gravity waves. If the time variation of the wave momentum forcing is given by a steady forcing plus a sinusoidal modulation, a tendency toward phase locking between the period of the wave forcing’s modulation and the period of the resulting mean wind oscillation is found in some cases, depending on the period and magnitude of the wave forcing as well as the phase difference between variations of the easterly and westerly momentum fluxes. Regime diagrams are shown to make these dependences clearer. If the wave forcings are irregularly modulated, the resulting time variation of the wind oscillation shows no resemblance to the imposed time variation of the wave forcing. These simple calculations are used to indicate that for nonlinear phenomena, such as the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO), one cannot conclude that a lack of correlation between two data records means that these are physically unrelated. When the equatorial wave momentum fluxes are modulated according to the eastern Pacific sea surface temperatures, the simulated time variation of the QBO period sometimes (depending on the phase relation between the easterly and westerly time-varying fluxes) shows a great resemblance to the observations. This suggests that easterly and westerly momentum fluxes into the equatorial lower stratosphere are related to SST variations.
