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- Author or Editor: Wilton Sturges x
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Abstract
The goal of this work was to understand the rate at which large anticyclonic rings are shed from the Loop Current in the Gulf of Mexico. The northward penetration of the Loop Current is used here as a surrogate variable. Data are primarily from satellite IR maps and are supplemented with XBT sections and older hydrographic data. The IR data have gaps from poor summertime visibility, bad weather, and the ambiguity of not knowing exactly when a ring separates.
A least-squares method is developed for computing the spectrum. The computations are performed in the time domain to avoid problems with explicit calculation of the Fourier transform. The slightly smoothed spectrum can be recovered to high accuracy at low frequencies for the case of long segments of continuous data separated by large gaps. The method requires choosing an appropriate smooth data window to widen the spectral window, determining the effective Nyquist frequency of the method, filtering the continuous data segments to remove power at frequencies higher than the Nyquist, and inverting a matrix for the cosine and sine terms of the traditional Fourier frequencies.
The spectrum of Loop Current variability has several broad peaks. The primary one near 8.5 months appears to be the fundamental rate at which rings would be shed with constant inflow. Others, near 6, 13.4, and 25 months, can be understood as interactions between the fundamental and various forcing frequencies. At periods shorter than ∼4 months the spectrum falls away toward high frequencies as f −25. Although there is a substantial peak near 13.4 months, the power at exactly 12.0 months does not rise above the background level.
Abstract
The goal of this work was to understand the rate at which large anticyclonic rings are shed from the Loop Current in the Gulf of Mexico. The northward penetration of the Loop Current is used here as a surrogate variable. Data are primarily from satellite IR maps and are supplemented with XBT sections and older hydrographic data. The IR data have gaps from poor summertime visibility, bad weather, and the ambiguity of not knowing exactly when a ring separates.
A least-squares method is developed for computing the spectrum. The computations are performed in the time domain to avoid problems with explicit calculation of the Fourier transform. The slightly smoothed spectrum can be recovered to high accuracy at low frequencies for the case of long segments of continuous data separated by large gaps. The method requires choosing an appropriate smooth data window to widen the spectral window, determining the effective Nyquist frequency of the method, filtering the continuous data segments to remove power at frequencies higher than the Nyquist, and inverting a matrix for the cosine and sine terms of the traditional Fourier frequencies.
The spectrum of Loop Current variability has several broad peaks. The primary one near 8.5 months appears to be the fundamental rate at which rings would be shed with constant inflow. Others, near 6, 13.4, and 25 months, can be understood as interactions between the fundamental and various forcing frequencies. At periods shorter than ∼4 months the spectrum falls away toward high frequencies as f −25. Although there is a substantial peak near 13.4 months, the power at exactly 12.0 months does not rise above the background level.
Abstract
A previous study by the author concluded that either there were errors in the satellite results or that some long-term means were not in geostrophic balance. Ship-drift results are in good agreement with surface drifters, but these two do not agree with satellite sea surface heights (SSH). The agreement between the first two suggested the possibility that there could be errors in the SSH or that the mean surface flow is not in geostrophic balance. The present results, using the addition of a fourth long-term mean from hydrographic data, which agrees with the SSH, resolves the issue. The lack of agreement between different long-term means is from inadequate coverage in space and time in data from ship drifts and drifters.
Abstract
A previous study by the author concluded that either there were errors in the satellite results or that some long-term means were not in geostrophic balance. Ship-drift results are in good agreement with surface drifters, but these two do not agree with satellite sea surface heights (SSH). The agreement between the first two suggested the possibility that there could be errors in the SSH or that the mean surface flow is not in geostrophic balance. The present results, using the addition of a fourth long-term mean from hydrographic data, which agrees with the SSH, resolves the issue. The lack of agreement between different long-term means is from inadequate coverage in space and time in data from ship drifts and drifters.
Abstract
Ship-drift data in the Gulf of Mexico have led to a perplexing result, that the near-surface flow in the west has a north–south mean, of the east–west flow, ~5–10 cm s−1 into a closed basin. Ship-drift data have been used in the past hundred years under the assumption that they are reasonably accurate; the present study examines that assumption carefully, finding that the standard deviation of individual observations is typically ~20 cm s−1. In a monthly mean composed of order 400 observations or more, as examined here, the standard error of the mean will be reduced accordingly. In the southern part of the western Gulf of Mexico, the observed upper-layer flow is clearly to the west and is consistent with our expectations. In the northern part, however, the apparent flow as reported by ship drift in deep water is not significantly different from zero. Thus, the puzzling result remains: three different datasets in the southern half of the basin clearly show flow to the west, with speeds of 10 cm s−1 or more, yet there is no clear evidence of a near-surface return flow back to the east. The convergent wind stress forces downwelling of the upper layer; its return flow could be at some intermediate depth. The transport to the west from Loop Current rings is possibly returned in a deep boundary flow driven by the rectification of deep topographic Rossby waves.
Abstract
Ship-drift data in the Gulf of Mexico have led to a perplexing result, that the near-surface flow in the west has a north–south mean, of the east–west flow, ~5–10 cm s−1 into a closed basin. Ship-drift data have been used in the past hundred years under the assumption that they are reasonably accurate; the present study examines that assumption carefully, finding that the standard deviation of individual observations is typically ~20 cm s−1. In a monthly mean composed of order 400 observations or more, as examined here, the standard error of the mean will be reduced accordingly. In the southern part of the western Gulf of Mexico, the observed upper-layer flow is clearly to the west and is consistent with our expectations. In the northern part, however, the apparent flow as reported by ship drift in deep water is not significantly different from zero. Thus, the puzzling result remains: three different datasets in the southern half of the basin clearly show flow to the west, with speeds of 10 cm s−1 or more, yet there is no clear evidence of a near-surface return flow back to the east. The convergent wind stress forces downwelling of the upper layer; its return flow could be at some intermediate depth. The transport to the west from Loop Current rings is possibly returned in a deep boundary flow driven by the rectification of deep topographic Rossby waves.
Abstract
Previous studies have found a puzzling disagreement between two large datasets and the results of numerical models in the central Gulf of Mexico. The observations suggest an upper-layer mean flow to the west of order 10 cm s−1, while the numerical models find no such mean flow. A new technique is used here, using 23 yr of satellite-derived sea surface height data, to estimate the mean flow. This third, independent set of data yields the same westward flow found in previous studies. These findings require that there be sinking in the western Gulf. The details of the return flow remain an intriguing problem.
Abstract
Previous studies have found a puzzling disagreement between two large datasets and the results of numerical models in the central Gulf of Mexico. The observations suggest an upper-layer mean flow to the west of order 10 cm s−1, while the numerical models find no such mean flow. A new technique is used here, using 23 yr of satellite-derived sea surface height data, to estimate the mean flow. This third, independent set of data yields the same westward flow found in previous studies. These findings require that there be sinking in the western Gulf. The details of the return flow remain an intriguing problem.
Abstract
Two large, independent sets of direct observations in the central Gulf of Mexico show a mean near-surface flow of ~10 cm s−1 to the west, concentrated in the northern and southern Gulf. Numerical models that the authors have examined do not produce this mean westward flow. The observed speeds appear to be almost an order of magnitude larger than the estimated errors; this paper studies the observations to estimate carefully the possible errors involved and compares the observations with model results. The flow to the west in the southern Gulf is presumably wind driven on the shallow parts of the shelf, and, in slightly deeper water at the outer edges of the shelf, is possibly the result of southward Sverdrup interior flow driven by the negative curl of the wind stress. In another possibly related issue, long-term deep current-meter observations in the northern Gulf at ~1000 m and below find flow to the west, whereas some models find flow to the east. The flow proposed here assumes a mean flow to the west above roughly 300 m, with a required return flow in deep water. The difference between the deep observations and the models will produce a slope of pressure surfaces of the opposite sign below 1000 m, reversing the direction of upper-layer geostrophic flow in the models.
Abstract
Two large, independent sets of direct observations in the central Gulf of Mexico show a mean near-surface flow of ~10 cm s−1 to the west, concentrated in the northern and southern Gulf. Numerical models that the authors have examined do not produce this mean westward flow. The observed speeds appear to be almost an order of magnitude larger than the estimated errors; this paper studies the observations to estimate carefully the possible errors involved and compares the observations with model results. The flow to the west in the southern Gulf is presumably wind driven on the shallow parts of the shelf, and, in slightly deeper water at the outer edges of the shelf, is possibly the result of southward Sverdrup interior flow driven by the negative curl of the wind stress. In another possibly related issue, long-term deep current-meter observations in the northern Gulf at ~1000 m and below find flow to the west, whereas some models find flow to the east. The flow proposed here assumes a mean flow to the west above roughly 300 m, with a required return flow in deep water. The difference between the deep observations and the models will produce a slope of pressure surfaces of the opposite sign below 1000 m, reversing the direction of upper-layer geostrophic flow in the models.
Abstract
The anticyclonic Loop Current dominates the upper-layer flow in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, with a weaker mean anticyclonic pattern in the western gulf. There are reasons, however, to suspect that the deep mean flow should actually be cyclonic. Topographic wave rectification and vortex stretching contribute to this cyclonic tendency, as will the supply of cold incoming deep water at the edges of the basin. The authors find that the deep mean flow is cyclonic both in the eastern and western gulf, with speeds on the order of 1–2 cm s−1 at 2000 m. Historical current-meter mooring data, as well as profiling autonomous Lagrangian circulation explorer (PALACE) floats (at 900 m), suggest that vertical geostrophic shear relative to 1000 m gives a surprisingly accurate result in the interior of the basin. The temperature around the edges of the basin at 2000 m is coldest near the Yucatan Channel, where Caribbean Sea water is colder by ∼0.1°C. The temperature increases steadily with distance in the counterclockwise direction from the Yucatan, consistent with a deep mean cyclonic boundary flow.
Abstract
The anticyclonic Loop Current dominates the upper-layer flow in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, with a weaker mean anticyclonic pattern in the western gulf. There are reasons, however, to suspect that the deep mean flow should actually be cyclonic. Topographic wave rectification and vortex stretching contribute to this cyclonic tendency, as will the supply of cold incoming deep water at the edges of the basin. The authors find that the deep mean flow is cyclonic both in the eastern and western gulf, with speeds on the order of 1–2 cm s−1 at 2000 m. Historical current-meter mooring data, as well as profiling autonomous Lagrangian circulation explorer (PALACE) floats (at 900 m), suggest that vertical geostrophic shear relative to 1000 m gives a surprisingly accurate result in the interior of the basin. The temperature around the edges of the basin at 2000 m is coldest near the Yucatan Channel, where Caribbean Sea water is colder by ∼0.1°C. The temperature increases steadily with distance in the counterclockwise direction from the Yucatan, consistent with a deep mean cyclonic boundary flow.
Abstract
Narragansett Bay is a weakly stratified estuary comprised of three connecting passages of varying depths. The vertical distribution of horizontal velocity was observed in the West Passage using moored current meters. The instantaneous motion was characterized by semi-diurnal tidal currents of amplitude 25–60 cm s−1. These currents exhibited a phase advance with depth (total water depth=12.8 m) ranging with lunar phase from 0–3 h. The net current time series obtained by filtering out motions at tidal and higher frequencies were found to be an order of magnitude less than the instantaneous motion and well correlated to the prevailing 2–10 m s−1 winds. For periodicities of 2–3 days, the coherence between the longitudinal components of wind and net near surface current was as high as 0.8 with the current lagging the wind by about 3 h. The mean near surface speed, obtained by averaging over one month, was 1.2±1.6 cm s−1. The large error bounds were a result of the large variability of the net current time series (and not a result of inadequate sampling). A measure of this variability due to day-to-day changes in weather is given by the root mean square deviation of the net current time series or 2.6 cm s−1. The net transport of water through the West Passage was observed to be seaward or landward over the entire water column for several days duration, with typical wind induced transport fluctuations of ± m2 s−1. Hence, a net communication of water exists between the East and West Passages with water flowing either way in response to the wind. Wind is concluded to be the dominant mechanism driving the net circulation in the West Passage of Narragansett Bay. This is in contrast with the classical views of gravitationally convected net estuarine circulation.
Abstract
Narragansett Bay is a weakly stratified estuary comprised of three connecting passages of varying depths. The vertical distribution of horizontal velocity was observed in the West Passage using moored current meters. The instantaneous motion was characterized by semi-diurnal tidal currents of amplitude 25–60 cm s−1. These currents exhibited a phase advance with depth (total water depth=12.8 m) ranging with lunar phase from 0–3 h. The net current time series obtained by filtering out motions at tidal and higher frequencies were found to be an order of magnitude less than the instantaneous motion and well correlated to the prevailing 2–10 m s−1 winds. For periodicities of 2–3 days, the coherence between the longitudinal components of wind and net near surface current was as high as 0.8 with the current lagging the wind by about 3 h. The mean near surface speed, obtained by averaging over one month, was 1.2±1.6 cm s−1. The large error bounds were a result of the large variability of the net current time series (and not a result of inadequate sampling). A measure of this variability due to day-to-day changes in weather is given by the root mean square deviation of the net current time series or 2.6 cm s−1. The net transport of water through the West Passage was observed to be seaward or landward over the entire water column for several days duration, with typical wind induced transport fluctuations of ± m2 s−1. Hence, a net communication of water exists between the East and West Passages with water flowing either way in response to the wind. Wind is concluded to be the dominant mechanism driving the net circulation in the West Passage of Narragansett Bay. This is in contrast with the classical views of gravitationally convected net estuarine circulation.
Abstract
Several independent data sources suggest that there is a net upper-layer mass flux O(3 Sv) (Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) to the west in the central Gulf of Mexico, even though the western gulf is a closed basin. A plausible explanation is that this net flux is pumped downward by the convergent wind-driven Ekman pumping, as is typical of all midlatitude anticlyclonic gyres. The downward flux can follow isopycnals to depths O(500–600 m) and deeper by eddy mixing; a mechanism for forcing deep water to the south through the Yucatan Channel is provided by the intrusion and ring-shedding cycle of the Loop Current. Potential vorticity maps show that a deep flow from the western gulf back to the Yucatan Channel is likely.
Abstract
Several independent data sources suggest that there is a net upper-layer mass flux O(3 Sv) (Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) to the west in the central Gulf of Mexico, even though the western gulf is a closed basin. A plausible explanation is that this net flux is pumped downward by the convergent wind-driven Ekman pumping, as is typical of all midlatitude anticlyclonic gyres. The downward flux can follow isopycnals to depths O(500–600 m) and deeper by eddy mixing; a mechanism for forcing deep water to the south through the Yucatan Channel is provided by the intrusion and ring-shedding cycle of the Loop Current. Potential vorticity maps show that a deep flow from the western gulf back to the Yucatan Channel is likely.
Abstract
The Loop Current in the Gulf of Mexico sheds large anticyclonic rings on an irregular basis. The authors attempt to show what actually triggers the ring separations. Pulses of increased transport through the Florida Straits, as observed by the cable data, are observed prior to each ring separation. This finding is consistent over all separation events observed in the satellite altimetry record. The pulses of transport occur approximately two to four weeks before the rings separate. The increase in transport is usually accompanied by a corresponding increase in offshore sea level, suggesting forcing from the open ocean. The delay times between the pulses of increased transport and ring separations can be shown to be significantly correlated with the length of the Loop Current. Mean sea levels over the Caribbean and Gulf also peak before the separations, on average.
Abstract
The Loop Current in the Gulf of Mexico sheds large anticyclonic rings on an irregular basis. The authors attempt to show what actually triggers the ring separations. Pulses of increased transport through the Florida Straits, as observed by the cable data, are observed prior to each ring separation. This finding is consistent over all separation events observed in the satellite altimetry record. The pulses of transport occur approximately two to four weeks before the rings separate. The increase in transport is usually accompanied by a corresponding increase in offshore sea level, suggesting forcing from the open ocean. The delay times between the pulses of increased transport and ring separations can be shown to be significantly correlated with the length of the Loop Current. Mean sea levels over the Caribbean and Gulf also peak before the separations, on average.
