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-scale turbulent eddies. They also find, however, that resolving the bulk properties of a convective cloud may be possible with 1-km grid spacing. Similarly, Weisman et al. (1997) found that 4 km may be sufficient to represent the system-scale properties of midlatitude squall-line-type convection. To achieve a balance between ensemble size and the fidelity of the simulated storms, the model grid spacing used herein is Δ x = 1 km and Δ z = 500 m (the vertical grid spacing is 250 m in the lowest 1250 m and
-scale turbulent eddies. They also find, however, that resolving the bulk properties of a convective cloud may be possible with 1-km grid spacing. Similarly, Weisman et al. (1997) found that 4 km may be sufficient to represent the system-scale properties of midlatitude squall-line-type convection. To achieve a balance between ensemble size and the fidelity of the simulated storms, the model grid spacing used herein is Δ x = 1 km and Δ z = 500 m (the vertical grid spacing is 250 m in the lowest 1250 m and
indicative of the orogenic 1 nature of storms in these locations. Supercell thunderstorm formation and mesoscale storm structure over the Great Plains of the United States have been extensively studied. For example, Carlson et al. (1983) documented the conditions associated with supercell development, and Houze et al. (1990) showed the tendency for storms over the Great Plains to develop into mesoscale convective systems with leading lines of intense convection and trailing-stratiform precipitation
indicative of the orogenic 1 nature of storms in these locations. Supercell thunderstorm formation and mesoscale storm structure over the Great Plains of the United States have been extensively studied. For example, Carlson et al. (1983) documented the conditions associated with supercell development, and Houze et al. (1990) showed the tendency for storms over the Great Plains to develop into mesoscale convective systems with leading lines of intense convection and trailing-stratiform precipitation
midlatitude and tropical severe weather ( Maddox et al. 1979 ; Maddox 1981 ; Cotton et al. 1983 ; Li et al. 2012 ; Chen et al. 2013 ; Meng et al. 2013 ; Zheng et al. 2013 ; Luo et al. 2014 ; L. Luo et al. 2020 ). The storm clusters, storm lines or storm complexes formed by the interaction of individual convective storms are collectively termed mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), which are the largest form of organized convective storms usually with a length scale of >100 km in space and temporal
midlatitude and tropical severe weather ( Maddox et al. 1979 ; Maddox 1981 ; Cotton et al. 1983 ; Li et al. 2012 ; Chen et al. 2013 ; Meng et al. 2013 ; Zheng et al. 2013 ; Luo et al. 2014 ; L. Luo et al. 2020 ). The storm clusters, storm lines or storm complexes formed by the interaction of individual convective storms are collectively termed mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), which are the largest form of organized convective storms usually with a length scale of >100 km in space and temporal
– 2069 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1999)056<2045:ANSOCM>2.0.CO;2 . Anderson-Frey , A. , Y. Richardson , A. Dean , R. Thompson , and B. Smith , 2016 : Investigation of near-storm environments for tornado events and warnings . Wea. Forecasting , 31 , 1771 – 1790 , https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-16-0046.1 . Ashley , W. S. , A. M. Haberlie , and J. Strohm , 2019 : A climatology of quasi-linear convective systems and their hazards in the United States . Wea
– 2069 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1999)056<2045:ANSOCM>2.0.CO;2 . Anderson-Frey , A. , Y. Richardson , A. Dean , R. Thompson , and B. Smith , 2016 : Investigation of near-storm environments for tornado events and warnings . Wea. Forecasting , 31 , 1771 – 1790 , https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-16-0046.1 . Ashley , W. S. , A. M. Haberlie , and J. Strohm , 2019 : A climatology of quasi-linear convective systems and their hazards in the United States . Wea
numerically simulated nocturnal squall lines. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 134 , 3735 – 3752 . Fritsch , J. M. , and G. S. Forbes , 2001 : Mesoscale convective systems. Severe Convective Storms, Meteor. Monogr., No. 50, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 323–357 . Gallus , W. A. , and R. H. Johnson , 1992 : The momentum budget of an intense midlatitude squall line. J. Atmos. Sci. , 49 , 422 – 450 . Gallus , W. A. , and M. Pfeifer , 2008 : Intercomparison of simulations using 5 WRF microphysical schemes
numerically simulated nocturnal squall lines. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 134 , 3735 – 3752 . Fritsch , J. M. , and G. S. Forbes , 2001 : Mesoscale convective systems. Severe Convective Storms, Meteor. Monogr., No. 50, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 323–357 . Gallus , W. A. , and R. H. Johnson , 1992 : The momentum budget of an intense midlatitude squall line. J. Atmos. Sci. , 49 , 422 – 450 . Gallus , W. A. , and M. Pfeifer , 2008 : Intercomparison of simulations using 5 WRF microphysical schemes
temperature, and equivalent potential temperature associated with the cold pool, and the maximum wind speeds in the cold pool). A total of 47 stations are associated with the first storms life cycle stage, 156 with the MCS initiation stage, 948 with the mature MCS stage, and 238 with the MCS dissipation stage. Since idealized simulations of convective systems often use environmental thermodynamic profiles typical of the late afternoon and early evening, the 200 station time series that had outflow
temperature, and equivalent potential temperature associated with the cold pool, and the maximum wind speeds in the cold pool). A total of 47 stations are associated with the first storms life cycle stage, 156 with the MCS initiation stage, 948 with the mature MCS stage, and 238 with the MCS dissipation stage. Since idealized simulations of convective systems often use environmental thermodynamic profiles typical of the late afternoon and early evening, the 200 station time series that had outflow
northwest of the S-Pol radar, allowing for coordinated profiler/S-Pol radar observations. The locations of both the S-Pol radar and NOAA field site are shown in Fig. 1 . Since both instrument sites were situated on the coastal plain, unobstructed views over the profiler by the S-Pol radar could be obtained. One particular focus of NAME was documenting the detailed physical structure and kinematics of mesoscale convective systems (MCSs; Higgins et al. 2006 ). Lang et al. (2007) , in performing a
northwest of the S-Pol radar, allowing for coordinated profiler/S-Pol radar observations. The locations of both the S-Pol radar and NOAA field site are shown in Fig. 1 . Since both instrument sites were situated on the coastal plain, unobstructed views over the profiler by the S-Pol radar could be obtained. One particular focus of NAME was documenting the detailed physical structure and kinematics of mesoscale convective systems (MCSs; Higgins et al. 2006 ). Lang et al. (2007) , in performing a
1. Introduction Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), one of the largest forms of midlatitude convective storms, develop and mature when aggregated cumulonimbus clouds become organized and produce distinct mesoscale circulations ( Houze 2004 , 2018 ). MCSs are commonly observed in the tropics ( Nesbitt et al. 2006 ; Yuan and Houze 2010 ) and over the midlatitude continents in eminent baroclinic zones ( Laing and Fritsch 1997 , 2000 ). Characterized by both regions of convective and
1. Introduction Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), one of the largest forms of midlatitude convective storms, develop and mature when aggregated cumulonimbus clouds become organized and produce distinct mesoscale circulations ( Houze 2004 , 2018 ). MCSs are commonly observed in the tropics ( Nesbitt et al. 2006 ; Yuan and Houze 2010 ) and over the midlatitude continents in eminent baroclinic zones ( Laing and Fritsch 1997 , 2000 ). Characterized by both regions of convective and
explicitly model when events occurred. An event simulation meant that a storm passed over the study/simulation window, but without a specific time or date assigned to the event. As rainfall event occurrence is a major characteristic of a given rainfall regime, there is a need to simulate it in the rainfall generator. b. Event-based rain fields An event-based rain field is defined here as the cumulative rainfall left by the passing of convective rainfall systems over the study site. The stochastic
explicitly model when events occurred. An event simulation meant that a storm passed over the study/simulation window, but without a specific time or date assigned to the event. As rainfall event occurrence is a major characteristic of a given rainfall regime, there is a need to simulate it in the rainfall generator. b. Event-based rain fields An event-based rain field is defined here as the cumulative rainfall left by the passing of convective rainfall systems over the study site. The stochastic
mountain-initiated episodes (0300–0500 UTC). During the late night hours and through morning (0600–1400 UTC), the dominant precipitation type was from merged episodes as mountain- and plains-initiated systems combined, grew upscale and precipitated over the Great Plains. The largest 10% rain-producing storms produced 91% of the PECAN precipitation, which underlines the importance of investigations into the factors that lead to maintenance and upscale growth of convection. Analysis of these largest
mountain-initiated episodes (0300–0500 UTC). During the late night hours and through morning (0600–1400 UTC), the dominant precipitation type was from merged episodes as mountain- and plains-initiated systems combined, grew upscale and precipitated over the Great Plains. The largest 10% rain-producing storms produced 91% of the PECAN precipitation, which underlines the importance of investigations into the factors that lead to maintenance and upscale growth of convection. Analysis of these largest
