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correspond to the significance levels of 0.1, 0.05, and 0.01. Second, the mean values of the estimates and the GRACE data are used to show the level of imbalance between the input and output of the water budget. Since the mean value of the TWSC monthly series in each grid is the mass change rate on a monthly scale, it reflects the regional water balance. The imbalance in the GRACE data can be regarded as the real changes in the water cycle caused by climate change or anthropogenic influences because of
correspond to the significance levels of 0.1, 0.05, and 0.01. Second, the mean values of the estimates and the GRACE data are used to show the level of imbalance between the input and output of the water budget. Since the mean value of the TWSC monthly series in each grid is the mass change rate on a monthly scale, it reflects the regional water balance. The imbalance in the GRACE data can be regarded as the real changes in the water cycle caused by climate change or anthropogenic influences because of
the formulation of the budgets is discussed by Rienecker et al. (2007) and Suarez et al. (2011) . 3. Water and energy budgets a. Global mean climatology TFK09 collect the global energy budget data from various sources, observational and reanalyses, and close it with consistency arguments from dataset intercomparisons, to determine estimates for principal energy flux components and balance. However, each term exhibits large variations among the different observing systems and reanalyses, so any
the formulation of the budgets is discussed by Rienecker et al. (2007) and Suarez et al. (2011) . 3. Water and energy budgets a. Global mean climatology TFK09 collect the global energy budget data from various sources, observational and reanalyses, and close it with consistency arguments from dataset intercomparisons, to determine estimates for principal energy flux components and balance. However, each term exhibits large variations among the different observing systems and reanalyses, so any
partitioning the water balance into atmospheric and terrestrial components ( Peixoto and Oort 1992 ; Oki et al. 1995 ; Trenberth and Guillemot 1998 ), the net water flux is present in both atmospheric and terrestrial water budgets, as shown in Eqs. (1) and (2) : (1) P − E = − ∂ W ∂ t − ∇ ⋅ V q , (2) P − E = ∂ S ∂ t + R , where W is the total column water vapor in the atmosphere; − ∇ ⋅ V q is the vertically integrated moisture convergence, where V and q are the horizontal wind and specific
partitioning the water balance into atmospheric and terrestrial components ( Peixoto and Oort 1992 ; Oki et al. 1995 ; Trenberth and Guillemot 1998 ), the net water flux is present in both atmospheric and terrestrial water budgets, as shown in Eqs. (1) and (2) : (1) P − E = − ∂ W ∂ t − ∇ ⋅ V q , (2) P − E = ∂ S ∂ t + R , where W is the total column water vapor in the atmosphere; − ∇ ⋅ V q is the vertically integrated moisture convergence, where V and q are the horizontal wind and specific
water over the past 50 years. A 10-yr-long (2001–10) modeling study in four lakes (including Nam Co Lake) in the southern-central TP indicated that the glacier-melt contribution to the total basin runoff volume played a less important role than precipitation-induced runoff in nonglacierized land areas ( Biskop et al. 2016 ). In Nam Co Lake, long-term (1980–2010) changes in the water budget and lake level were simulated using a dynamic water balance model by Wu et al. (2014) , and glacier melt
water over the past 50 years. A 10-yr-long (2001–10) modeling study in four lakes (including Nam Co Lake) in the southern-central TP indicated that the glacier-melt contribution to the total basin runoff volume played a less important role than precipitation-induced runoff in nonglacierized land areas ( Biskop et al. 2016 ). In Nam Co Lake, long-term (1980–2010) changes in the water budget and lake level were simulated using a dynamic water balance model by Wu et al. (2014) , and glacier melt
and Farquhar 2011 ; Wang and Hejazi 2011 ; Xu et al. 2014 ; W. Wang et al. 2016 ; Wu et al. 2017 ; Tian et al. 2018 ; Li et al. 2020 ; Gao et al. 2020 ). By utilizing Budyko equations in CA, we aim to acquire a better understanding of the contributions of climate change to wet/dry trends from the perspective of the surface water balance. In addition to the surface water budget, the atmospheric water budget is another important aspect for measuring dry and wet changes. Dominguez et al
and Farquhar 2011 ; Wang and Hejazi 2011 ; Xu et al. 2014 ; W. Wang et al. 2016 ; Wu et al. 2017 ; Tian et al. 2018 ; Li et al. 2020 ; Gao et al. 2020 ). By utilizing Budyko equations in CA, we aim to acquire a better understanding of the contributions of climate change to wet/dry trends from the perspective of the surface water balance. In addition to the surface water budget, the atmospheric water budget is another important aspect for measuring dry and wet changes. Dominguez et al
the occurrence of hydrological extremes, and resolving the complex interactions of the land surface, oceans and atmosphere. This could be achieved by accurate and reliable estimation of the terrestrial water budget components. With the increase of data availability for each water budget component from various sources (e.g., satellite remote sensing, climate model reanalysis), the water balance and its uncertainty can be better assessed and quantified at regional or continental scales. This is
the occurrence of hydrological extremes, and resolving the complex interactions of the land surface, oceans and atmosphere. This could be achieved by accurate and reliable estimation of the terrestrial water budget components. With the increase of data availability for each water budget component from various sources (e.g., satellite remote sensing, climate model reanalysis), the water balance and its uncertainty can be better assessed and quantified at regional or continental scales. This is
(2018) have characterized the performance of multiple precipitation datasets through an approach that combines ground-based observation of multiple hydrologic variables along with performance metrics based on surface water budget closure. Their approach offers advancement over previous studies by allowing a more reliable evaluation of precipitation datasets over regions with sparse observations by relying on the physical conservation constraints offered by the water balance. In the same context
(2018) have characterized the performance of multiple precipitation datasets through an approach that combines ground-based observation of multiple hydrologic variables along with performance metrics based on surface water budget closure. Their approach offers advancement over previous studies by allowing a more reliable evaluation of precipitation datasets over regions with sparse observations by relying on the physical conservation constraints offered by the water balance. In the same context
temporal variability of climatic forcing involves various region-specific processes such as snow thawing–melting and vegetation growth ( Zeng and Cai 2016 ). Although advances have been made to quantify the Δ S effects on the water balances estimation within the Budyko framework, our knowledge on the roles of Δ S in water balance partition and its influences on BM performance at the shorter time scales is still limited given the large spatiotemporal variability in most water budget variables and the
temporal variability of climatic forcing involves various region-specific processes such as snow thawing–melting and vegetation growth ( Zeng and Cai 2016 ). Although advances have been made to quantify the Δ S effects on the water balances estimation within the Budyko framework, our knowledge on the roles of Δ S in water balance partition and its influences on BM performance at the shorter time scales is still limited given the large spatiotemporal variability in most water budget variables and the
that soil heat storage was released slowly over the several hours after sunset ( Masseroni et al. 2015 ; Liu et al. 2018 ). This explains why, in rice fields, Cs events occurred much later than Cc events. c. Importance and contribution of vapor condensation to the rice field water budget While vapor condensation was well recognized as an important hydrometeorological process and water balance component in arid or semiarid areas, information on vapor condensation in humid areas was scarce. The
that soil heat storage was released slowly over the several hours after sunset ( Masseroni et al. 2015 ; Liu et al. 2018 ). This explains why, in rice fields, Cs events occurred much later than Cc events. c. Importance and contribution of vapor condensation to the rice field water budget While vapor condensation was well recognized as an important hydrometeorological process and water balance component in arid or semiarid areas, information on vapor condensation in humid areas was scarce. The
several assumptions and approximations. First, since we are only considering large-scale motions, we have assumed that motions are in hydrostatic balance. This is an accurate approximation since the vertical velocities are weaker than the horizontal winds outside convective updrafts’ cores. Second, we are not including the effect of ice processes (i.e., freezing and sublimation) on Eqs. (3d) and (3e) . Last, we ignore the effects of water vapor and hydrometeor content on the gas constant ( R d
several assumptions and approximations. First, since we are only considering large-scale motions, we have assumed that motions are in hydrostatic balance. This is an accurate approximation since the vertical velocities are weaker than the horizontal winds outside convective updrafts’ cores. Second, we are not including the effect of ice processes (i.e., freezing and sublimation) on Eqs. (3d) and (3e) . Last, we ignore the effects of water vapor and hydrometeor content on the gas constant ( R d
