-
Abbs, D. J., 1986: Sea-breeze interactions along a concave coastline in southern Australia: Observations and numerical modeling study. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 831–848, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1986)114<0831:SBIAAC>2.0.CO;2.
-
Ackerman, S. A., A. Heidinger, M. J. Foster, and B. Maddux, 2013: Satellite regional cloud climatology over the Great Lakes. Remote Sens., 5, 6223–6240, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs5126223.
-
Agee, E. M., and M. L. Hart, 1990: Boundary layer and mesoscale structure over Lake Michigan during a wintertime cold air outbreak. J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 2293–2316, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1990)047<2293:BLAMSO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Alcott, T. I., and W. J. Steenburgh, 2013: Orographic influences on a Great Salt Lake–effect snowstorm. Mon. Wea. Rev., 141, 2432–2450, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-12-00328.1.
-
Alcott, T. I., W. J. Steenburgh, and N. F. Laird, 2012: Great Salt Lake–effect precipitation: Observed frequency, characteristics, and associated environmental factors. Wea. Forecasting, 27, 954–971, https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-12-00016.1.
-
Allwine, K. J., J. H. Shinn, G. E. Streit, K. L. Clawson, and M. Brown, 2002: Overview of URBAN 2000: A multiscale field study of dispersion through an urban environment. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 83, 521–536, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(2002)083<0521:OOUAMF>2.3.CO;2.
-
Allwine, K. J., M. J. Leach, L. W. Stockham, J. S. Shinn, R. P. Hosker, J. F. Bowers, and J. C. Pace, 2004: Overview of Joint Urban 2003—An atmospheric dispersion study in Oklahoma City. Symp. on Planning, Nowcasting, and Forecasting in the Urban Zone/Eighth Symp. on Integrated Observing and Assimilation Systems for Atmosphere, Oceans, and Land Surface, Seattle, WA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., J7.1, https://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/74349.pdf.
-
Angell, J. K., and D. H. Pack, 1965: A study of the sea breeze at Atlantic City, New Jersey using tetroons as Lagrangian tracers. Mon. Wea. Rev., 93, 475–493, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1965)093<0475:ASOTSB>2.3.CO;2.
-
Anthes, R. A., 1978: The height of the planetary boundary layer and the production of circulation in a sea breeze model. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 1231–1239, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1978)035<1231:THOTPB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Armstrong, A., R. R. Burton, S. E. Lee, S. Mobbs, N. Ostle, V. Smith, S. Waldron, and J. Whitaker, 2016: Ground-level climate at a peatland wind farm in Scotland is affected by wind turbine operation. Environ. Res. Lett., 11, 044024, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/044024.
-
Atkins, N. T., and R. M. Wakimoto, 1997: Influence of the synoptic-scale flow on sea breezes observed during CaPE. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 2112–2130, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1997)125<2112:IOTSSF>2.0.CO;2.
-
Atkins, N. T., R. M. Wakimoto, and T. M. Weckwerth, 1995: Observations of the sea-breeze front during CaPE. Part II: Dual-Doppler and aircraft analysis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 944–969, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123<0944:OOTSBF>2.0.CO;2.
-
Atlas, D., 1960: Radar detection of the sea breeze. J. Meteor., 17, 244–258, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1960)017<0244:RDOTSB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Auer, A. H., 1981: Urban boundary layer. METROMEX: A Review and Summary, Meteor. Monogr., No. 40, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 41–62.
-
Azorin-Molina, C., B. H. Connell, and R. Baena-Calatrava, 2009: Sea-breeze convergence zones from AVHRR over the Iberian Mediterranean area and the Isle of Mallorca, Spain. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 48, 2069–2085, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JAMC2141.1.
-
Baidya Roy, S., and J. J. Traiteur, 2010: Impacts of wind farms on surface air temperatures. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107, 17 899–17 904, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000493107.
-
Baijnath-Rodino, J. A., C. R. Duguay, and E. LeDrew, 2018: Climatological trends of snowfall over the Laurentian Great Lakes Basin. Int. J. Climatol., 38, 3942–3962, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5546.
-
Baldocchi, D. D., S. B. Verma, and N. J. Rosenberg, 1981: Environmental effects on the CO2 flux and CO2—water flux ratio of Alfalfa. Agric. Meteor., 24, 175–184, https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-1571(81)90042-X.
-
Ballentine, R. J., 1982: Numerical simulation of land-breeze-induced snowbands along the western shore of Lake Michigan. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 1544–1553, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1982)110<1544:NSOLBI>2.0.CO;2.
-
Ballentine, R. J., A. J. Stamm, E. E. Chermack, G. P. Byrd, and D. Schleede, 1998: Mesoscale model simulation of the 4–5 January 1995 lake-effect snowstorm. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 893–920, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0893:MMSOTJ>2.0.CO;2.
-
Banta, R. M., 1995: Sea breezes shallow and deep on the California coast. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 3614–3622, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123<3614:SBSADO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Banta, R. M., L. D. Olivier, and D. H. Levinson, 1993: Evolution of the Monterey Bay sea-breeze layer as observed by pulsed Doppler lidar. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 3959–3982, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1993)050<3959:EOTMBS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Banta, R. M., and Coauthors, 1998: Daytime buildup and nighttime transport of urban ozone in the boundary layer during a stagnation episode. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 22 519–22 544, https://doi.org/10.1029/98JD01020.
-
Barbato, J. P., 1978: Areal parameters of the sea breeze and its vertical structure in the Boston basin. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 59, 1420–1431, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1978)059<1420:APOTSB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Bard, L., and D. A. R. Kristovich, 2012: Trend reversal in Lake Michigan contribution to snowfall. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 51, 2038–2046, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-12-064.1.
-
Barlow, J. F., 2014: Progress in observing and modelling the urban boundary layer. Urban Climate, 10, 216–240, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2014.03.011.
-
Barthold, F. E., and D. A. Kristovich, 2011: Observations of the cross-lake cloud and snow evolution in a lake-effect snow event. Mon. Wea. Rev., 139, 2386–2398, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-10-05001.1.
-
Bartlett, J. L., 1905: The influence of small lakes on local temperature conditions. Mon. Wea. Rev., 33, 147–148, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1905)33<147:TIOSLO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Bastin, S., and Coauthors, 2006: On the interaction between sea breeze and summer mistral at the exit of the Rhône Valley. Mon. Wea. Rev., 134, 1647–1668, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR3116.1.
-
Beers, N. R., 1947: Sea-breeze circulation. J. Meteor., 4, 74–74, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1947)004<0076:SBC>2.0.CO;2.
-
Belcher, S. E., 2005: Mixing and transport in urban areas. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc., 363A, 2947–2968, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2005.1673.
-
Bergmaier, P. T., and B. Geerts, 2016: Airborne radar observations of lake-effect snowbands over the New York Finger Lakes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 144, 3895–3914, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-16-0103.1.
-
Bergmaier, P. T., B. Geerts, L. S. Campbell, and W. J. Steenburgh, 2017: The OWLeS IOP2b lake-effect snowstorm: Dynamics of the secondary circulation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 145, 2437–2459, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-16-0462.1.
-
Blaylock, B. K., J. D. Horel, and E. T. Crosman, 2017: Impact of lake breezes on summer ozone concentrations in the Salt Lake Valley. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 56, 353–370, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-16-0216.1.
-
Bornstein, R. D., 1968: Observations of the urban heat island effect in New York City. J. Appl. Meteor., 7, 575–582, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1968)007<0575:OOTUHI>2.0.CO;2.
-
Bornstein, R. D., 1975: The two-dimensional URBMET urban boundary layer model. J. Appl. Meteor., 14, 1459–1477, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1975)014<1459:TTDUUB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Bornstein, R. D., and W. T. Thompson, 1981: Effects of frictionally retarded sea breeze and synoptic frontal passages on sulfur dioxide concentrations in New York City. J. Appl. Meteor., 20, 843–858, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1981)020<0843:EOFRSB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Braham, R. R., and R. D. Kelly, 1982: Lake-effect snow storms on Lake Michigan, USA. Cloud Dynamics, E. M. Agee and T. Asai, Eds., D. Reidel, 87–101.
-
Braham, R. R., and M. J. Dungey, 1984: Quantitative estimates of the effect of Lake Michigan on snowfall. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 23, 940–949, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1984)023<0940:QEOTEO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Braham, R. R., and D. A. R. Kristovich, 1996: On calculating the buoyancy of cores in a convective boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 654–658, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1996)053<0654:OCTBOC>2.0.CO;2.
-
Briere, S., 1987: Energetics of daytime sea breeze circulation as determined from a two-dimensional, third-order turbulence closure model. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 1455–1474, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1987)044<1455:EODSBC>2.0.CO;2.
-
Brunk, I. W., 1962: Precipitation estimates in the Great Lakes drainage basins. Mon. Wea. Rev., 90, 79–82, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1962)090<0079:PEITGL>2.0.CO;2.
-
Bruse, M., and H. Fleer, 1998: Simulating surface–plant–air interactions inside urban environments with a three dimensional numerical model. Environ. Modell. Software, 13, 373–384, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-8152(98)00042-5.
-
Buckley, R. L., and R. J. Kurzeja, 1997a: An observational and numerical study of the nocturnal sea breeze. Part I: Structure and circulation. J. Appl. Meteor., 36, 1577–1598, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1997)036<1577:AOANSO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Buckley, R. L., and R. J. Kurzeja, 1997b: An observational and numerical study of the nocturnal sea breeze. Part II: Chemical transport. J. Appl. Meteor., 36, 1599–1619, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1997)036<1599:AOANSO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Burk, S. D., and D. O. Staley, 1979: Comments “On the rotation rate of the direction of sea and land breezes.” J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 369–371, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1979)036<0369:CTRROT>2.0.CO;2.
-
Burnett, A. W., M. E. Kirby, H. T. Mullins, and W. P. Patterson, 2003: Increasing Great Lake–effect snowfall during the twentieth century: A regional response to global warming? J. Climate, 16, 3535–3542, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<3535:IGLSDT>2.0.CO;2.
-
Burpee, R. W., 1979: Peninsula-scale convergence in the south Florida sea breeze. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 852–860, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<0852:PSCITS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Burpee, R. W., and L. N. Lahiffi, 1984: Area-average rainfall variations on sea-breeze days in south Florida. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 520–534, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1984)112<0520:AARVOS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Byers, H. R., and H. R. Rodebush, 1948: Causes of thunderstorms of the Florida Peninsula. J. Meteor., 5, 275–280, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1948)005<0275:COTOTF>2.0.CO;2.
-
Byrd, G. P., R. A. Anstett, J. E. Heim, and D. M. Usinski, 1991: Mobile sounding observations of lake-effect snowbands in western and central New York. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 2323–2332, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1991)119<2323:MSOOLE>2.0.CO;2.
-
Campbell, L. S., and W. J. Steenburgh, 2017: The OWLeS IOP2b lake-effect snowstorm: Mechanisms contributing to the Tug Hill precipitation maximum. Mon. Wea. Rev., 145, 2461–2478, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-16-0461.1.
-
Campbell, L. S., W. J. Steenburgh, P. G. Veals, T. W. Letcher, and J. R. Minder, 2016: Lake-effect mode and precipitation enhancement over the Tug Hill Plateau during OWLeS IOP2b. Mon. Wea. Rev., 144, 1729–1748, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-15-0412.1.
-
Carpenter, K. M., 1979: An experimental forecast using a non-hydrostatic mesoscale model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 105, 629–655, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710544510.
-
Carpenter, D. M., 1993: The lake effect of the Great Salt Lake: Overview and forecast problems. Wea. Forecasting, 8, 181–193, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(1993)008<0181:TLEOTG>2.0.CO;2.
-
Casadio, S., A. Di Sarra, G. Fiocco, D. Fuà, F. Lena, and M. P. Rao, 1996: Convective characteristics of the nocturnal urban boundary layer as observed with Doppler sodar and Raman lidar. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 79, 375–391, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00119405.
-
Catlett, C. E., P. H. Beckman, R. Sankaran, and K. K. Galvin, 2017: Array of things: A scientific research instrument in the public way: Platform design and early lessons learned. Proc. Second Int. Workshop on Science of Smart City Operations and Platforms Engineering, SCOPE ’17, New York, NY, ACM, https://doi.org/10.1145/3063386.3063771.
-
Cautenet, S., and R. Rosset, 1989: Numerical simulation of sea breezes with vertical wind shear during dry season at Cape of Three Points, West Africa. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 329–339, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1989)117<0329:NSOSBW>2.0.CO;2.
-
CCPN, 2018: Cook County Precipitation Network. Illinois State Water Survey, accessed 17 April 2019, https://www.isws.illinois.edu/data/ccprecipnet/livedata.asp.
-
Chandler, T. J., 1965: The Climate of London. Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., 292 pp.
-
Chang, S. S., and R. R. Braham, 1991: Observational study of a convective internal boundary layer over Lake Michigan. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 2265–2279, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1991)048<2265:OSOACI>2.0.CO;2.
-
Changnon, S. A., 1968: Precipitation climatology of Lake Michigan basin. Illinois State Water Survey Bull. 52, 31 pp., https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/94582/ISWSB-52.pdf?sequence=1.
-
Changnon, S. A., 1969: Recent studies of urban effects on precipitation in the United States. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 50, 411–421, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-50.6.411.
-
Changnon, S. A., 1981: Introduction. METROMEX: A Review and Summary, Meteor. Monogr., No. 40, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 1–15.
-
Changnon, S. A., F. A. Huff, and R. G. Semonin, 1971: METROMEX: An investigation of inadvertent weather modification. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 52, 958–968, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1971)052<0958:MAIOIW>2.0.CO;2.
-
Chen, F., and Coauthors, 2011: The integrated WRF/urban modelling system: Development, evaluation, and applications to urban environmental problems. Int. J. Climatol., 31, 273–288, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2158.
-
Chen, T.-C., M.-C. Yen, J.-D. Tsay, C.-C. Liao, and E. S. Takle, 2014: Impact of afternoon thunderstorms on the land–sea breeze in the Taipei basin during summer: An experiment. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 53, 1714–1738, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-13-098.1.
-
Chiba, O., F. Kobayashi, G. Naito, and K. Sassa, 1999: Helicopter observations of the sea breeze over a coastal area. J. Appl. Meteor., 38, 481–492, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1999)038<0481:HOOTSB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Ching, J., J. F. Clarke, and J. M. Godowitch, 1983: Modulation of heat flux by different scales of advection in an urban environment. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 25, 171–191, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00123973.
-
Ching, J., and Coauthors, 2009: National urban database and access portal tool. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 90, 1157–1168, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009BAMS2675.1.
-
Clancy, R. M., J. D. Thompson, H. E. Hurlburt, and J. D. Lee, 1979: A model of mesoscale air-sea interaction in a sea breeze-coastal upwelling regime. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1476–1505, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1476:AMOMAS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Clappier, A., and Coauthors, 2000: Effect of sea breeze on air pollution in the greater Athens area. Part I: Numerical simulations and field observations. J. Appl. Meteor., 39, 546–562, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2000)039<0546:EOSBOA>2.0.CO;2.
-
Clark, C. A., and Coauthors, 2016: Spatiotemporal snowfall variability in the Lake Michigan region: How is warming affecting wintertime snowfall? J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 55, 1813–1830, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-15-0285.1.
-
Clarke, J. F., 1969: Nocturnal urban boundary layer over Cincinnati, Ohio. Mon. Wea. Rev., 97, 582–589, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1969)097<0582:NUBLOC>2.3.CO;2.
-
Coirier, W. J., D. M. Fricker, M. Furmanczyk, and S. Kim, 2005: A computational fluid dynamics approach for urban area transport and dispersion modeling. Environ. Fluid Mech., 5, 443–479, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10652-005-0299-4.
-
Conger, N. B., 1908: Storms and ice on the Great Lakes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 36, 236–237, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1908)36<236b:SAIOTG>2.0.CO;2.
-
Conger, N. B., 1910: Ice conditions on the Great Lakes during the winter of 1909–10. Mon. Wea. Rev., 38, 548–550, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1910)38<548:ICOTGL>2.0.CO;2.
-
Conry, P., H. J. S. Fernando, L. S. Leo, A. Sharma, M. Potosnak, and J. Hellmann, 2014: Multi-scale simulations of climate-change influence on Chicago heat island. ASME 2014 Fourth Joint US–European Fluids Engineering Division Summer/12th Int. Conf. on Nanochannels, Microchannels, and Minichannels, Chicago, IL, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, V01DT28A007–V01DT28A007, https://doi.org/10.1115/FEDSM2014-21581.
-
Conry, P., A. Sharma, M. J. Potosnak, L. S. Leo, E. Bensman, J. J. Hellmann, and H. J. Fernando, 2015: Chicago’s heat island and climate change: Bridging the scales via dynamical downscaling. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 54, 1430–1448, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-14-0241.1.
-
Cooper, D. I., and W. E. Eichinger, 1994: Structure of the atmosphere in an urban planetary boundary layer from lidar and radiosonde observations. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 22 937–22 948, https://doi.org/10.1029/94JD01944.
-
Crawley, D. B., J. W. Hand, M. Kummert, and B. T. Griffith, 2008: Contrasting the capabilities of building energy performance simulation programs. Build. Environ., 43, 661–673, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.10.027.
-
Cros, B., and Coauthors, 2004: The ESCOMPTE program: An overview. Atmos. Res., 69, 241–279, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2003.05.001.
-
Dabberdt, W. F., and Coauthors, 2005: Multifunctional mesoscale observing networks. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 86, 961–982, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-86-7-961.
-
Dailey, P. S., and R. G. Fovell, 1999: Numerical simulation of the interaction between the sea-breeze front and horizontal convective rolls. Part I: Offshore ambient flow. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 858–878, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1999)127<0858:NSOTIB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Dalu, G. A., and R. A. Pielke, 1989: An analytical study of the sea breeze. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 1815–1825, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1989)046<1815:AASOTS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Danard, M. B., and G. V. Rao, 1972: Numerical study of the effects of the Great Lakes on a winter cyclone. Mon. Wea. Rev., 100, 374–382, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1972)100<0374:NSOTEO>2.3.CO;2.
-
Danard, M. B., and A. C. McMillan, 1974: Further numerical studies of the effects of the Great Lakes on winter cyclones. Mon. Wea. Rev., 102, 166–175, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1974)102<0166:FNSOTE>2.0.CO;2.
-
Davidson, B., 1967: A summary of the New York urban air pollution dynamics research program. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 17, 154–158, https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1967.10468961.
-
Day, P. C., 1926: Precipitation in the drainage area of the Great Lakes, 1875–1924: With discussion of the levels of the separate lakes and their relation to the annual precipitation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 54, 85–106, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1926)54<85:PITDAO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Delage, Y., and P. A. Taylor, 1970: Numerical studies of heat island circulations. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 1, 201–226, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00185740.
-
DeMarrais, G. A., 1961: Vertical temperature difference observed over an urban area. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 42, 548–554, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-42.8.548.
-
Demuzere, M., 2014: Overview of CLM-U. COSMO/CLM/ART Training Course, Langen, Germany, 49 pp., https://www.clm-community.eu/dokumente/upload/70d88_20140224_commlandmodel-urban_matthias.pdf.
-
De Ridder, K., D. Lauwaet, and B. Maiheu, 2015: UrbClim—A fast urban boundary layer climate model. Urban Climate, 12, 21–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2015.01.001.
-
De Tomasi, F., M. Marcello Miglietta, and M. Rita Perrone, 2011: The growth of the planetary boundary layer at a coastal site: A case study. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 139, 521–541, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-011-9592-6.
-
Dewey, K. F., 1975: The prediction of Lake Huron lake-effect snowfall systems. J. Appl. Meteor., 14, 3–7, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1975)014<0003:TPOLHL>2.0.CO;2.
-
Donn, W. L., P. L. Milic, and R. Brilliant, 1956: Gravity waves and the tropical sea breeze. J. Meteor., 13, 356–361, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1956)013<0356:GWATTS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Doran, J. C., and Coauthors, 1998: The IMADA-AVER boundary layer experiment in the Mexico City area. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 79, 2497–2508, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1998)079<2497:TIABLE>2.0.CO;2.
-
Doran, J. C., J. D. Fast, and J. Horel, 2002: The VTMX 2000 campaign. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 83, 537–554, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(2002)083<0537:TVC>2.3.CO;2.
-
Doran, J. C., C. M. Berkowitz, R. L. Coulter, W. J. Shaw, and C. W. Spicer, 2003: The 2001 Phoenix Sunrise experiment: Vertical mixing and chemistry during the morning transition in Phoenix. Atmos. Environ., 37, 2365–2377, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00134-1.
-
Dou, J., Y. Wang, R. Bornstein, and S. Miao, 2015: Observed spatial characteristics of Beijing urban climate impacts on summer thunderstorms. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 54, 94–105, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-13-0355.1.
-
Duckworth, F. S., and J. S. Sandberg, 1954: The effect of cities upon horizontal and vertical temperature gradients. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 35, 198–207, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-35.5.198.
-
Dupont, E., L. Menut, B. Carissimo, J. Pelon, and P. Flamant, 1999: Comparison between the atmospheric boundary layer in Paris and its rural suburbs during the ECLAP experiment. Atmos. Environ., 33, 979–994, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00216-7.
-
Eichenlaub, V. L., 1970: Lake effect snowfall to the lee of the Great Lakes: Its role in Michigan. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 51, 403–413, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1970)051<0403:LESTTL>2.0.CO;2.
-
Eichenlaub, V. L., 1979: Weather and Climate of the Great Lakes Region. University of Notre Dame Press, 335 pp.
-
Eipper, D. T., G. S. Young, S. J. Greybush, S. Saslo, T. D. Sikora, and R. D. Clark, 2018: Predicting the inland penetration of long-lake-axis-parallel snowbands. Wea. Forecasting, 33, 1435–1451, https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-18-0033.1.
-
Ellis, A. W., and J. J. Johnson, 2004: Hydroclimatic analysis of snowfall trends associated with the North American Great Lakes. J. Hydrometeor., 5, 471–486, https://doi.org/10.1175/1525-7541(2004)005<0471:HAOSTA>2.0.CO;2.
-
Estoque, M. A., 1962: The sea breeze as a function of the prevailing synoptic situation. J. Atmos. Sci., 19, 244–250, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1962)019<0244:TSBAAF>2.0.CO;2.
-
Fan, H., and D. J. Sailor, 2005: Modeling the impacts of anthropogenic heating on the urban climate of Philadelphia: A comparison of implementations in two PBL schemes. Atmos. Environ., 39, 73–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.09.031.
-
Fan, Y., Y. Li, A. Bejan, Y. Wang, and X. Yang, 2017: Horizontal extent of the urban heat dome flow. Sci. Rep., 7, 11681, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09917-4.
-
Fanger, P. O., 1970: Thermal Comfort: Analysis and Applications in Environmental Engineering. McGraw-Hill, 244 pp.
-
Ferguson, E. W., 1971: Satellite view of a lake-effect snowstorm. Mon. Wea. Rev., 99, 247–248, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1971)099<0247:SVOALS>2.3.CO;2.
-
Fernando, H. J. S., 2010: Fluid dynamics of urban atmospheres in complex terrain. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 42, 365–389, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-fluid-121108-145459.
-
Fernando, H. J. S., S. M. Lee, J. Anderson, M. Princevac, E. Pardyjak, and S. Grossman-Clarke, 2001: Urban fluid mechanics: Air circulation and contaminant dispersion in cities. Environ. Fluid Mech., 1, 107–164, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011504001479.
-
Fiedler, B. H., and M. S. Bukovsky, 2011: The effect of a giant wind farm on precipitation in a regional climate model. Environ. Res. Lett., 6, 045101, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/045101.
-
Finardi, S., and Coauthors, 2018: Atmospheric dynamics and ozone cycle during sea breeze in a Mediterranean complex urbanized coastal site. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 57, 1083–1099, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-17-0117.1.
-
Findlay, B. F., and M. S. Hirt, 1969: An urban-induced meso-circulation. Atmos. Environ., 3, 537–542, https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(69)90043-2.
-
Fisher, E. L., 1960: An observational study of the sea breeze. J. Meteor., 17, 645–660, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1960)017<0645:AOSOTS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Fisher, E. L., 1961: A theoretical study of the sea breeze. J. Meteor., 18, 216–233, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1961)018<0216:ATSOTS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Fitch, A. C., 2015: Climate impacts of large-scale wind farms as parameterized in a global climate model. J. Climate, 28, 6160–6180, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00245.1.
-
Fosberg, M. A., and M. J. Schroeder, 1966: Marine air penetration in central California. J. Appl. Meteor., 5, 573–589, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1966)005<0573:MAPICC>2.0.CO;2.
-
Franchito, S. H., T. O. Oda, V. B. Rao, and M. T. Kayano, 2008: Interaction between coastal upwelling and local winds at Cabo Frio, Brazil: An observational study. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 47, 1590–1598, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JAMC1660.1.
-
Frehlich, R., Y. Meillier, M. L. Jensen, B. Balsley, and R. Sharman, 2006: Measurements of boundary layer profiles in an urban environment. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 45, 821–837, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAM2368.1.
-
Frizzola, J. A., and E. L. Fisher, 1963: A series of sea breeze observations in the New York City Area. J. Appl. Meteor., 2, 722–739, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1963)002<0722:ASOSBO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Fujisaki-Manome, A., and Coauthors, 2017: Turbulent heat fluxes during an extreme lake-effect snow event. J. Hydrometeor., 18, 3145–3163, https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-17-0062.1.
-
Geisler, J. E., and F. P. Bretherton, 1969: The sea-breeze forerunner. J. Atmos. Sci., 26, 82–95, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1969)026<0082:TSBF>2.0.CO;2.
-
Georgescu, M., P. E. Morefield, B. G. Bierwagen, and C. P. Weaver, 2014: Urban adaptation can roll back warming of emerging megapolitan regions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 111, 2909–2914, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322280111.
-
Gerbush, M. R., D. A. R. Kristovich, and N. F. Laird, 2008: Mesoscale boundary layer and heat flux variations over pack ice–covered Lake Erie. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 47, 668–682, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JAMC1479.1.
-
Ghude, S. D., and Coauthors, 2017: Winter Fog Experiment over the Indo-Gangetic plains of India. Curr. Sci., 112, https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v112/i04/767-784.
-
Giannaros, T. M., D. Melas, I. A. Daglis, I. Keramitsoglou, and K. Kourtidis, 2013: Numerical study of the urban heat island over Athens (Greece) with the WRF model. Atmos. Environ., 73, 103–111, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.02.055.
-
Gowardhan, A. A., E. R. Pardyjak, I. Senocak, and M. J. Brown, 2011: A CFD-based wind solver for an urban fast response transport and dispersion model. Environ. Fluid Mech., 11, 439–464, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10652-011-9211-6.
-
Grell, G. A., 1993: Prognostic evaluation of assumptions used by cumulus parameterizations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 764–787, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1993)121<0764:PEOAUB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Grell, G. A., J. Dudhia, and D. R. Stauffer, 1994: A description of the fifth generation Penn State/NCAR Mesoscale Model (MM5). NCAR Tech. Note NCAR/TN-398+STR, 121 pp., https://doi.org/10.5065/D60Z716B.
-
Grimmond, C. S. B., and T. R. Oke, 1991: An evapotranspiration-interception model for urban areas. Water Resour. Res., 27, 1739–1755, https://doi.org/10.1029/91WR00557.
-
Grimmond, C. S. B., and Coauthors, 2010: The International Urban Energy Balance Models Comparison Project: First results from phase 1. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 49, 1268–1292, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC2354.1.
-
Grossi, P., P. Thunis, A. Martilli, and A. Clappier, 2000: Effect of sea breeze on air pollution in the greater Athens area. Part II: Analysis of different emission scenarios. J. Appl. Meteor., 39, 563–575, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2000)039<0563:EOSBOA>2.0.CO;2.
-
Halliwell, G. R., and C. N. K. Mooers, 1983: Meanders of the Gulf Stream downstream from Cape Hatteras 1975–1978. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 1275–1292, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1983)013<1275:MOTGSD>2.0.CO;2.
-
Han, Y., J. E. Taylor, and A. L. Pisello, 2015: Toward mitigating urban heat island effects: Investigating the thermal-energy impact of bio-inspired retro-reflective building envelopes in dense urban settings. Energy Build., 102, 380–389, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.05.040.
-
Harris, R. A., L. Zhou, and G. Xia, 2014: Satellite observations of wind farm impacts on nocturnal land surface temperature in Iowa. Remote Sens., 6, 12 234–12 246, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61212234.
-
Hartnett, J. J., J. M. Collins, M. A. Baxter, and D. P. Chambers, 2014: Spatiotemporal snowfall trends in central New York. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 53, 2685–2697, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-14-0084.1.
-
Hasager, C. B., N. G. Nygaard, P. J. H. Volker, I. Karagali, S. J. Andersen and J. Badger, 2017: Wind farm wake: The 2016 Horns Rev photo case. Energies, 10, 317–3393, https://doi.org/10.3390/en10030317.
-
Hashizume, H., S.-P. Xie, M. Fujiwara, M. Shiotani, T. Watanabe, Y. Tanimoto, W. T. Liu, and K. Takeuchi, 2002: Direct observations of atmospheric boundary layer response to SST variations associated with tropical instability waves over the eastern equatorial Pacific. J. Climate, 15, 3379–3393, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<3379:DOOABL>2.0.CO;2.
-
Haugen, D. A., J. C. Kaimal, and E. F. Bradley, 1971: An experimental study of Reynolds stress and heat flux in the atmospheric surface layer. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 97, 168–180, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709741204.
-
Hawkins, J. D., 1977: A study of the mesoscale wind circulation in a land-sea breeze regime. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 58, 1289–1295, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1977)058<1289:ASOTMW>2.0.CO;2.
-
Henschen, M. F., and Coauthors, 2011: Do wind turbines affect weather conditions?: A case study in Indiana. J. Purdue Undergrad. Res., 1, 22–29, https://doi.org/10.5703/jpur.01.1.4.
-
Hirth, B. D., and J. L. Schroeder, 2013: Documenting wind speed and power deficits behind a utility-scale wind turbine. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 52, 39–46, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-12-0145.1.
-
Hjelmfelt, M. R., 1990: Numerical study of the influence of environmental conditions on lake-effect snowstorms over Lake Michigan. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 138–150, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<0138:NSOTIO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Holladay, C. G., and J. J. O’Brien, 1975: Mesoscale variability of sea surface temperatures. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 5, 761–772, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1975)005<0761:MVOSST>2.0.CO;2.
-
Holroyd, E. W., 1971: Lake-effect cloud bands as seen from weather satellites. J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 1165–1170, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028<1165:LECBAS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Howard, L., 1833: The Climate of London. Vols. I–III, Harvey and Dorton.
-
Huang, C.-Y., and S. Raman, 1990: Numerical simulations of cold air advection over the Appalachian Mountains and the Gulf Stream. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 343–362, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<0343:NSOCAA>2.0.CO;2.
-
Hughes, C. P., and D. E. Veron, 2018: A characterization of the Delaware sea breeze using observations and modeling. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 57, 1405–1421, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-17-0186.1.
-
IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University Press, 996 pp.
-
Jeffreys, H., 1922: On the dynamics of wind. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 48, 29–48, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49704820105.
-
Jendritzky, G., 1990: Regional bio-climatological assessment procedure using mesoscale bioclimate maps as example. Methodik zur räumlichen Bewertung der thermischen Komponente im Bioklima des Menschen: Fortgeschriebenes Klima-Michel-Modell, Academy of Spatial Research and Planning, 7–69.
-
Johnson, E. C., and C. P. Mook, 1953: The heavy snowstorm of January 28–30, 1953 at the eastern end of Lake Ontario. Mon. Wea. Rev., 81, 26–30, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1953)081<0026:THSOJA>2.0.CO;2.
-
Johnson, A., and J. J. O’Brien, 1973: A study of an Oregon sea breeze event. J. Appl. Meteor., 12, 1267–1283, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1973)012<1267:ASOAOS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Jury, M. R., H. R. Valentine, and J. R. E. Lutjeharms, 1993: Influence of the Agulhas Current on summer rainfall along the southeast coast of South Africa. J. Appl. Meteor., 32, 1282–1287, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1993)032<1282:IOTACO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kaimal, J. C., J. C. Wyngaard, Y. Izumi, and O. R. Cote, 1971: Behavior of spectra and cospectra of turbulence in the atmospheric surface layer. Conf. on Air Pollution Meteorology, Raleigh, NC, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 22–29.
-
Kaimal, J. C., J. C. Wyngaard, D. A. Haugen, O. R. Coté, Y. Izumi, S. J. Caughey, and C. J. Readings, 1976: Turbulence structure in the convective boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 2152–2169, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033<2152:TSITCB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Keen, C. S., and W. A. Lyons, 1978: Lake/land breeze circulations on the western shore of Lake Michigan. J. Appl. Meteor., 17, 1843–1855, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1978)017<1843:LBCOTW>2.0.CO;2.
-
Keith, D. W., J. F. Decarolis, D. C. Denkenberger, D. H. Lenschow, S. L. Malyshev, S. Pacala, and P. J. Rasch, 2004: The influence of large-scale wind power on global climate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 101, 16 115–16 120, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0406930101.
-
Kelly, R. D., 1986: Mesoscale frequencies and seasonal snowfalls for different types of Lake Michigan snow storms. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 25, 308–312, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1986)025<0308:MFASSF>2.0.CO;2.
-
King, P. W. S., M. J. Leduc, D. M. L. Sills, N. R. Donaldson, D. R. Hudak, P. Joe, and B. P. Murphy, 2003: Lake breezes in southern Ontario and their relation to tornado climatology. Wea. Forecasting, 18, 795–807, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(2003)018<0795:LBISOA>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kingsmill, D. E., 1995: Convection initiation associated with a sea-breeze front, a gust front, and their collision. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 2913–2933, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123<2913:CIAWAS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kitada, T., K. Igarashi, and M. Owada, 1986: Numerical analysis of air pollution in a combined field of land/sea breeze and mountain/valley wind. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 25, 767–784, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1986)025<0767:NAOAPI>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kolev, I., O. Parvanov, B. Kaprielov, E. Donev, and D. Ivanov, 1998: Lidar observations of sea-breeze and land-breeze aerosol structure on the Black Sea. J. Appl. Meteor., 37, 982–995, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1998)037<0982:LOOSBA>2.0.CO;2.
-
Konda, M., H. Ichikawa, H. Tomita, and M. F. Cronin, 2010: Surface heat flux variations across the Kuroshio Extension as observed by surface flux buoys. J. Climate, 23, 5206–5221, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3391.1.
-
Kondo, H., Y. Genchi, Y. Kikegawa, Y. Ohashi, H. Yoshikado, and H. Komiyama, 2005: Development of a multi-layer urban canopy model for the analysis of energy consumption in a big city: Structure of the urban canopy model and its basic performance. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 116, 395–421, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-005-0905-5.
-
Koseki, S., and M. Watanabe, 2010: Atmospheric boundary layer response to mesoscale SST anomalies in the Kuroshio Extension. J. Climate, 23, 2492–2507, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI2915.1.
-
Koskinen, J. T., and Coauthors, 2011: The Helsinki Testbed: A mesoscale measurement, research, and service platform. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 92, 325–342, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010BAMS2878.1.
-
Kozo, T. L., 1982a: An observational study of sea breezes along the Alaskan Beaufort Sea coast: Part I. J. Appl. Meteor., 21, 891–905, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1982)021<0891:AOSOSB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kozo, T. L., 1982b: A mathematical model of sea breezes along the Alaskan Beaufort Sea coast: Part II. J. Appl. Meteor., 21, 906–924, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1982)021<0906:AMMOSB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kratzer, A., 1956: The Climate of Cities (Das Stadtklima). Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, 221 pp.
-
Kristovich, D. A. R., and R. A. Steve, 1995: A satellite study of cloud-band frequencies over the Great Lakes. J. Appl. Meteor., 34, 2083–2090, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<2083:ASSOCB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kristovich, D. A. R., and R. R. Braham, 1998: Mean profiles of moisture fluxes in snow-filled boundary layers. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 87, 195–215, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1000836401204.
-
Kristovich, D. A. R., and N. F. Laird, 1998: Observations of widespread lake-effect cloudiness: Influences of lake surface temperature and upwind conditions. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 811–821, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0811:OOWLEC>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kristovich, D. A. R., and Coauthors, 2000: The Lake-Induced Convection Experiment and the Snowband Dynamics Project. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 81, 519–542, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(2000)081<0519:TLCEAT>2.3.CO;2.
-
Kristovich, D. A. R., N. F. Laird, and M. R. Hjelmfelt, 2003: Convective evolution across Lake Michigan during a widespread lake-effect snow event. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 643–655, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2003)131<0643:CEALMD>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kristovich, D. A. R., and Coauthors, 2017: The Ontario Winter Lake-Effect Systems Field Campaign: Scientific and educational adventures to further our knowledge and prediction of lake-effect storms. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 98, 315–332, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00034.1.
-
Kristovich, D. A. R., L. Bard, L. Stoecker, and B. Geerts, 2018: Influence of Lake Erie on a Lake Ontario lake-effect snowstorm. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 57, 2019–2033, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-17-0349.1.
-
Kunkel, K. E., E. W. Eloranta, and S. T. Shipley, 1977: Lidar observations of the convective boundary layer. J. Appl. Meteor., 16, 1306–1311, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1977)016<1306:LOOTCB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Kunkel, K. E., N. E. Westcott, and D. A. R. Kristovich, 2002: Assessment of potential effects of climate change on heavy lake-effect snowstorms near Lake Erie. J. Great Lakes Res., 28, 521–536, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0380-1330(02)70603-5.
-
Kunkel, K. E., L. Ensor, M. Palecki, D. Easterling, D. Robinson, K. G. Hubbard, and K. Redmond, 2009: A new look at lake-effect snowfall trends in the Laurentian Great Lakes using a temporally homogeneous data set. J. Great Lakes Res., 35, 23–29, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jglr.2008.11.003.
-
Kusaka, H., and F. Kimura, 2004: Coupling a single-layer urban canopy model with a simple atmospheric model: Impact on urban heat island simulation for an idealized case. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 82, 67–80, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.82.67.
-
Kusaka, H., H. Kondo, Y. Kikegawa, and F. Kimura, 2001: A simple single-layer urban canopy model for atmospheric models: Comparison with multi-layer and slab models. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 101, 329–358, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019207923078.
-
Laird, N., and D. A. R. Kristovich, 2004: Comparison of observations with idealized model results for a method to resolve winter lake-effect mesoscale morphology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 132, 1093–1103, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2004)132<1093:COOWIM>2.0.CO;2.
-
Laird, N., D. A. R. Kristovich, R. M. Rauber, H. T. Ochs, and L. J. Miller, 1995: The Cape Canaveral sea and river breezes: Kinematic structure and convective initiation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 2942–2956, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123<2942:TCCSAR>2.0.CO;2.
-
Laird, N., J. E. Walsh, and D. A. R. Kristovich, 2003: Model simulations examining the relationship of lake-effect morphology to lake shape, wind direction, and wind speed. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 2102–2111, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2003)131<2102:MSETRO>2.0.CO;2.
-
Laird, N., J. Desrochers, and M. Payer, 2009: Climatology of lake-effect precipitation events over Lake Champlain. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 48, 232–250, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JAMC1923.1.
-
Laird, N., R. Sobash, and N. Hodas, 2010: Climatological conditions of lake-effect precipitation events associated with the New York State Finger Lakes. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 49, 1052–1062, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC2312.1.
-
Laird, N., A. M. Bentley, S. A. Ganetis, A. Stieneke, and S. A. Tushaus, 2016: Climatology of lake-effect precipitation events over Lake Tahoe and Pyramid Lake. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 55, 297–312, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-14-0230.1.
-
Laird, N., N. D. Metz, L. Gaudet, C. Grasmick, L. Higgins, C. Loeser, and D. A. Zelinsky, 2017: Climatology of cold season lake-effect cloud bands for the North American Great Lakes. Int. J. Climatol., 37, 2111–2121, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4838.
-
Landsberg, H. E., 1981: The Urban Climate. Academic Press, 277 pp.
-
Lavoie, R. L., 1972: A mesoscale numerical model of lake-effect storms. J. Atmos. Sci., 29, 1025–1040, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1972)029<1025:AMNMOL>2.0.CO;2.
-
Lavoie, R. L., W. R. Cotton, and J. B. Hovermale, 1970: Investigations of Lake Effect Storms. Department of Meteorology, Pennsylvania State University, 127 pp.
-
Lee, S.-H., and Coauthors, 2011: Evaluation of urban surface parameterizations in the WRF model using measurements during the Texas Air Quality Study 2006 field campaign. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 2127–2143, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-2127-2011.
-
Lenschow, D. H., 1973: Two examples of planetary boundary layer modification over the Great Lakes. J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 568–581, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1973)030<0568:TEOPBL>2.0.CO;2.
-
Leopold, L. B., 1949: The interaction of trade wind and sea breeze, Hawaii. J. Meteor., 6, 312–320, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1949)006<0312:TIOTWA>2.0.CO;2.
-
Lhermitte, R. M., and M. Gilet, 1975: Dual-Doppler radar observation and study of sea breeze convective storm development. J. Appl. Meteor., 14, 1346–1361, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1975)014<1346:DDROAS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Li, D., E. Bou-Zeid, and M. Oppenheimer, 2014: The effectiveness of cool and green roofs as urban heat island mitigation strategies. Environ. Res. Lett., 9, 055002, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/5/055002.
-
Li, M., Z. Mao, Y. Song, M. Liu, and X. Huang, 2015: Impacts of the decadal urbanization on thermally induced circulations in eastern China. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 54, 259–282, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-14-0176.1.
-
Lindberg, F., and C. S. B. Grimmond, 2011: The influence of vegetation and building morphology on shadow patterns and mean radiant temperatures in urban areas: Model development and evaluation. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 105, 311–323, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-010-0382-8.
-
Lindberg, F., B. Holmer, and S. Thorsson, 2008: SOLWEIG 1.0—Modelling spatial variations of 3D radiant fluxes and mean radiant temperature in complex urban settings. Int. J. Biometeor., 52, 697–713, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-008-0162-7.
-
Liu, W. T., X. Xie, and P. P. Niiler, 2007: Ocean–atmosphere interaction over Agulhas Extension meanders. J. Climate, 20, 5784–5797, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JCLI1732.1.
-
Liu, Y., F. Chen, T. Warner, and J. Basara, 2006: Verification of a mesoscale data-assimilation and forecasting system for the Oklahoma City area during the Joint Urban 2003 field project. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 45, 912–929, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAM2383.1.
-
Lombardo, K., E. Sinsky, Y. Jia, M. M. Whitney, and J. Edson, 2016: Sensitivity of simulated sea breezes to initial conditions in complex coastal regions. Mon. Wea. Rev., 144, 1299–1320, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-15-0306.1.
-
Loose, T., and R. D. Bornstein, 1977: Observations of mesoscale effects on frontal movement through an urban area. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 563–571, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1977)105<0563:OOMEOF>2.0.CO;2.
-
Loughner, C. P., and Coauthors, 2014: Impact of bay-breeze circulations on surface air quality and boundary layer export. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 53, 1697–1713, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-13-0323.1.
-
Lu, R., and R. P. Turco, 1994: Air pollutant transport in a coastal environment. Part I: Two-dimensional simulations of sea-breeze and mountain effects. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2285–2308, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1994)051<2285:APTIAC>2.0.CO;2.
-
Lyons, W. A., 1972: The climatology and prediction of the Chicago lake breeze. J. Appl. Meteor., 11, 1259–1270, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1972)011<1259:TCAPOT>2.0.CO;2.
-
Lyons, W. A., and L. E. Olsson, 1972: Mesoscale air pollution transport in the Chicago lake breeze. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 22, 876–881, https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1972.10469725.
-
Lyons, W. A., and H. S. Cole, 1976: Photochemical oxidant transport: Mesoscale lake breeze and synoptic-scale aspects. J. Appl. Meteor., 15, 733–743, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1976)015<0733:POTMLB>2.0.CO;2.
-
Ma, J., X. Li, and Y. Zhu, 2012: A simplified method to predict the outdoor thermal environment in residential district. Build. Simul., 5, 157–167, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-012-0079-2.
-
Magaziner, E. L., 1973: A numerical model of the effects of seeding on the evolution of a lake-effect storm. J. Appl. Meteor., 12, 948–954, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1973)012<0948:ANMOTE>2.0.CO;2.
-
Mahrer, Y., and R. A. Pielke, 1977: The effects of topography on sea and land breezes in a two-dimensional numerical model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 1151–1162, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1977)105<1151:TEOTOS>2.0.CO;2.
-
Mann, G. E., R. B. Wagenmaker, and P. J. Sousounis, 2002: The influence of multiple lake interactions upon lake-effect storms. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 1510–1530, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<1510:TIOMLI>2.0.CO;2.
-
Martilli, A., 2007: Current research and future challenges in urban mesoscale modelling. Int. J. Climatol., 27, 1909–1918, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1620.
-
Martilli, A., A. Clappier, and M. W. Rotach, 2002: An urban surface exchange parameterisation for mesoscale models. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 104, 261–304, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016099921195.
-
Masson, V., 2000: A physically-based scheme for the urban energy budget in atmospheric models. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 94, 357–397, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1002463829265.
-
Masson, V., 2006: Urban surface modeling and the meso-scale impact of cities. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 84, 35–45, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-005-0142-3.
-
Masunaga, R., H. Nakamura, T. Miyasaka, K. Nishii, and Y. Tanimoto, 2015: Separation of climatological imprints of the Kuroshio Extension and Oyashio fronts on the wintertime atmospheric boundary layer: Their sensitivity to SST resolution prescribed for atmospheric reanalysis. J. Climate, 28, 1764–1787, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00314.1.
-
Matzarakis, A., F. Rutz, and H. Mayer, 2007: Modelling radiation fluxes in simple and complex environments–application of the RayMan model. Int. J. Biometeor., 51, 323–334, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-006-0061-8.
-
Mayer, H., and P. Höppe, 1987: Thermal comfort of man in different urban environments. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 38, 43–49, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00866252.
-
McAuliffe, J. P., 1922: Cause of the accelerated sea breeze over Corpus Christi, Tex. Mon. Wea. Rev., 50, 581–582, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1922)50<581:COTASB>2.0.CO;2.
-
McCormick, R. A., and D. M. Baulch, 1962: The variation with height of the dust loading over a city as determined from the atmospheric turbidity. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 12, 492–496, https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1962.10468119.
-
McPherson, R. D., 1970: A numerical study of the effect of a coastal irregularity on the sea breeze. J. Appl. Meteor., 9, 767–777, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1970)009<0767:ANSOTE>2.0.CO;2.
-
Melecio-Vázquez, D., P. Ramamurthy, M. Arend, and J. E. González-Cruz, 2018: Thermal structure of a coastal–urban boundary layer. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 169, 151–161, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-018-0361-7.