7. Table of Contents
Please refer to Chapter 8 (Relevant Datasets and Sources) for a list of all climate variables and datasets used in this chapter for analyses, along with their websites for more information and access to the data.
a. Overview
This chapter provides summaries of the 2022 temperature and precipitation conditions across seven broad regions: North America, Central America and the Caribbean, South America, Africa, Europe and the Middle East, Asia, and Oceania. In most cases, summaries of notable weather events are also included. Local scientists provided the annual summary for their respective regions and, unless otherwise noted, the source of the data used is typically the agency affiliated with the authors. The base period used for these analyses is 1991–2020, unless otherwise stated. Please note that on occasion different nations, even within the same section, may use unique periods to define their normal. Section introductions typically define the prevailing practices for that section, and exceptions will be noted within the text. In a similar way, many contributing authors use languages other than English as their primary professional language. To minimize additional loss of fidelity through re-interpretation after translation, editors have been conservative and careful to preserve the voice of the author. In some cases, this may result in abrupt transitions in style from section to section.
b. North America
—A. Sánchez-Lugo, Ed.
Below-average annual temperatures were observed across central Canada, the northern contiguous United States, and parts of northern and western Mexico during 2022, while the rest of the region experienced near- to above-average annual temperatures. Averaged as a whole, North America’s annual temperature was 1.00°C above the 1991–2020 base period and the 16th-warmest year in the 113-year continental record (extends back to 1910).
Precipitation varied across the region, with significant annual deficits across parts of western and central contiguous United States and northeastern and central Mexico. Several significant events occurred during the year, including Hurricanes Fiona and Ian, among others.
Anomalies in this section are all based on the 1991–2020 base period, unless otherwise noted.
1. CANADA
—K. H. Y. Leung, V. Y. S. Cheng, C. Fogarty, and C. Morehen
In Canada, the national 2022 average temperatures for summer and autumn ranked among the six warmest such periods in the nation’s 75-year record (1948–2022). The national winter and spring temperatures were below the 1991–2020 average and ranked seasonally as the 27th lowest and 30th highest, respectively. Overall, Canada had its 16th-warmest year on record. The temperature records presented in this section are based on adjusted and homogenized Canadian climate data.
(i) Temperature
The annual 2022 average temperature for Canada was 0.1°C above the 1991–2020 average and ranked as the 16th-warmest year on record (Fig. 7.1). Over the past 75 years (1948–2022), the national annual average temperature exhibited a warming of 1.9°C and 3 of the 10 warmest years have occurred since 2012. Spatially, annual anomalies of more than +1.0°C were recorded in easternmost Canada, and anomalies of more than +0.5°C were recorded mainly in northeastern and small regions of western Canada. In 2022, 4 of the 13 provinces and territories (Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland and Labrador) experienced annual average temperatures that were among their 10 highest in the 75-year record. Annual anomalies of more than −0.5°C were observed in areas from central Saskatchewan to northern Ontario, along with small areas in southern British Columbia. Temperatures of more than 1.5°C below average were recorded in the regions between the provincial border of southern Manitoba and northern Ontario (Fig. 7.2).
Annual average temperature anomalies (°C; 1991–2020 base period) in Canada for the period 1948–2022. Red line is the 11-year running mean. (Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Annual average temperature anomalies (°C; 1991–2020 base period) in Canada for 2022. (Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Seasonally, the national average temperature for winter (December 2021–February 2022) was 1.6°C below average, making it the 27th-coolest winter on record. Winter anomalies of −4.5°C were recorded over the southeastern portion of Northwest Territories as well as northern Saskatchewan. Most of Canada experienced winter temperatures at least 0.5°C below average. However, above-average temperatures were recorded in most of Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and northeastern Nunavut. The national average temperature for winter has increased by 3.4°C over the past 75 years.
During spring (March–May), temperature departures of at least −0.5°C were observed mainly in British Columbia and from central Yukon southeastward to northern Ontario. Above-average temperatures were recorded in northern Nunavut, northern and southern Quebec, southern Ontario, and most of the Atlantic provinces. The rest of the country experienced near-average temperatures. Although the national average temperature for spring 2022 was 0.2°C below the 1991–2020 average, it was still the 30th-warmest spring on record. The most anomalously warm spring was observed in the northernmost region of Nunavut, with temperature departures of more than +2.0°C. The national average spring temperature has increased by 1.6°C over the past 75 years.
The national average temperature for summer (June–August) was 0.8°C above average—the third-warmest summer on record. Most of the Atlantic Provinces, northern Quebec, and the rest of northern, western, and central Canada experienced summer temperatures that were 0.5°C above average or greater. Summer anomalies of more than +1.5°C were recorded in the central region of Nunavut, eastern British Columbia, western Alberta, and Labrador. Nine of the 13 provinces and territories had temperatures among their 10 highest on record for summer. The national average summer temperature has increased by 1.6°C over the past 75 years.
The national average temperature for autumn (September–November) was 1.0°C above average and the sixth highest on record. Most of Canada experienced temperatures at least 0.5°C above average, with the Northwest Territories, New Brunswick and some areas in Yukon, northern British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia experiencing temperatures 1.5°C to 3.0°C above average. Only a small region in northern and eastern Nunavut experienced below-average temperatures. Prince Edward Island had its highest autumn temperature on record, Nova Scotia had its second highest, and New Brunswick and Northwest Territories had their third highest. The national average autumn temperature has increased by 1.8°C over the past 75 years.
(ii) Precipitation
Over the past decade, precipitation monitoring technology has evolved and Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) and its partners have implemented a transition from manual observations to the use of automatic precipitation gauges. Extensive data integration is required to link the current precipitation observations to the long-term historical manual observations. The updating and reporting of historical adjusted precipitation trends and variations will be on temporary hiatus pending an extensive data reconciliation, and will be resumed thereafter. ECCC remains committed to providing credible climate data to inform adaptation decision-making while also ensuring that necessary data reconciliation occurs as monitoring technology evolves.
(iii) Notable events and impacts
On 21 May, a line of widespread and fast-moving thunderstorms traversed 1000 km from southwestern Ontario to Quebec City. These storms featured torrential rains, hail, and a cluster of straight-line downburst winds (i.e., a derecho). Four tornadoes were also associated with this event, with two Enhanced Fujita (EF)-1s occurring in the London area (with maximum winds between 160 km h−1 and 175 km h−1) along with two EF-2s near Toronto and Oshawa (with maximum winds between 180 km h−1 and 195 km h−1). Most of the weather stations along the derecho’s path recorded wind gusts near or above 100 km h−1. The derecho lasted approximately 11 hours and caused 11 fatalities and widespread damage in a swath over 100 km wide. Winds devastated farm properties in rural areas, while more than a million customers across Ontario and Quebec were left without power. The event caused more than $1 billion Canadian dollars ($750 million U.S. dollars) in damage—the sixth-costliest natural disaster in Canadian history in terms of insured losses. The last time Canada experienced a derecho of this ferocity was in July 1999, when a long line of storms swept into Ontario from Minnesota.
Hurricane Fiona, another devastating storm, made landfall in eastern Nova Scotia on 24 September as a Category 2-strength post-tropical cyclone with a minimum extrapolated sea-level pressure of 931 hPa. Fiona was the most intense and destructive tropical or post-tropical cyclone ever recorded for Canada’s Atlantic coast. Fiona’s maximum sustained winds at the time of landfall in Nova Scotia were around 165 km h−1. It was the strongest storm in Canadian history (as gauged by barometric pressure), with a pressure of 932.7 hPa measured on Hart Island, Nova Scotia, which was used to determine the extrapolated central pressure of 931 hPa at the moment of landfall. A record-high water height (before waves) of 2.73 meters was also recorded in Channel-Port aux Basques, Newfoundland. Numerous homes were damaged or destroyed in Newfoundland, with almost 200 people displaced and more than 500,000 left without power. Fiona became the costliest weather event in Atlantic Canada’s history with insured losses estimated to be at least $800 million Canadian dollars ($600 million U.S. dollars). Please refer to section 4g2 and Sidebar 4.1 for more information about Hurricane Fiona.
2. UNITED STATES
—K. Gleason, C. Fenimore, R. R. Heim Jr., and A. Smith
The annual average temperature for the contiguous United States (CONUS) in 2022 was 11.9°C, which was 0.1°C above the 1991–2020 average and equal with 1953 as the 18th-warmest year in the 128-year record (Fig. 7.3a). Below-average temperatures were concentrated across the Upper Midwest while above-average temperatures were scattered across parts of California, Texas, Florida, and New England (Fig. 7.4a). Based on a linear regression of data from 1895 to 2022, the annual CONUS temperature is increasing at an average rate of 0.09°C decade−1 (0.27°C decade −1 since 1970). Average precipitation for the nation totaled 722 mm, which is 91% of the 1991–2020 average (Fig. 7.3). However, the annual precipitation total has been increasing at an average rate of 5 mm decade−1 since 1895 (2 mm decade−1 since 1970). The average annual temperature across Alaska in 2022 was 0.4°C above average and was 16th highest on record. The annual temperature for Alaska over its 98-year record is increasing at an average rate of 0.17°C decade−1 since 1925 (0.44°C decade−1 since 1970).
Annual (a) mean temperature anomalies (°C) and (b) precipitation anomalies (mm; 1991–2020 base period) for the contiguous United States during 1895–2022. The black line is the lagged 10-year running mean. (Source: NOAA/NCEI.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Annual (a) average temperature anomalies (°C) and (b) total precipitation (% of average) in the contiguous United States for 2022 (1991–2020 base period). (Source: NOAA/NCEI.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
(i) Temperature
The winter (December–February) 2021/22 CONUS temperature was 0.4°C above average, with most of the anomalous warmth in the Southeast. The CONUS spring (March–May) temperature was near average, with above-average temperatures spanning from California to the Mississippi River and from the Gulf Coast to New England and below-average temperatures extending from Washington State to the Great Lakes. The summer (June–August) CONUS temperature was 0.9°C above average, the third highest on record. Above-average temperatures dominated the western half of the CONUS as well as the southern Plains and parts of the Northeast. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Texas each had their second-warmest summer while California observed its third warmest. The autumn (September–November) CONUS temperature was 0.1°C above average, with the highest anomalies occurring across portions of the West, Great Lakes, and Northeast. Maine had its fifth-warmest autumn on record.
(ii) Precipitation
The climate of the CONUS in 2022 was driven by ridges of high pressure along both the East and West coasts, which exacerbated the multi-year drought by suppressing precipitation across much of the West. Nebraska had its fourth-driest year on record while California ranked ninth driest (Fig. 7.4b).
Winter precipitation across the CONUS was 83% of average and ranked in the driest third of the historical record. Precipitation was above average across portions of the Upper Midwest and from the middle of the Mississippi River Valley to the eastern Great Lakes. Dry conditions prevailed across much of the Plains and Gulf Coast as well as parts of the West and East coasts. Precipitation totals for Louisiana, Nebraska, and Kansas were third, fourth, and fifth lowest on record, respectively. Spring precipitation was 97% of average, but was above average from the Northwest to the Great Lakes as well as in portions of the central Plains, Southeast, and the Northeast. North Dakota had its third-wettest spring on record. Below-average precipitation occurred from California to the western Plains and Texas. Summer precipitation was 95% of average, with above-average wetness occurring across parts of the Northwest, Southwest, Gulf Coast, and Ohio Valley. West Virginia experienced its seventh-wettest summer on record while monsoon rains across Arizona and New Mexico resulted in a ranking of eighth wettest for each state. It was drier than average across much of the Plains and in parts of the Northeast where Nebraska and New Jersey each had their fourth-driest summer on record. The autumn CONUS precipitation total was 81% of average, ranking in the driest third of the record. Precipitation was above average across portions of the Northeast and Florida while drier-than-average conditions were present across parts of the Northwest and from the Plains to the Ohio Valley. Nebraska had its seventh-driest autumn on record.
Drought coverage across the CONUS remained significant for the third consecutive year, with a minimum spatial extent of 44% occurring on 6 September and a maximum coverage of 63% on 25 October—the largest CONUS footprint since the drought of 2012. The rapid intensification and expansion of drought at times during 2022 resulted from the low precipitation occurring with record and near-record high temperatures that, in combination with sunny skies, low humidity, and windy conditions, led to a “flash drought” which rapidly reduced soil moisture, especially in parts of the Plains to the lower and middle parts of the Mississippi Valley during the summer and early autumn. Drought impacted much of the western half of the United States for a majority of the year with some improvement resulting from the summer monsoon across the Southwest. Nonetheless, the multi-year western U.S. drought resulted in water stress/shortages across many locations as some major reservoirs dropped to their lowest levels on record.
(iii) Notable events and impacts
There were 18 weather and climate events across the United States during 2022 with losses each exceeding $1 billion (U.S. dollars): six severe storms, three tropical cyclones, three hail events, two tornado events and one each for drought, flood, winter storm, and wildfire events (Fig. 7.5). Total disaster costs for these events in 2022 exceeded $175 billion (U.S. dollars; adjusted to the Consumer Price Index)—the third-highest cost on record. The costliest event of the year was Hurricane Ian ($114 billion U.S. dollars) which ranks as the third-costliest hurricane on record (1980–2022; see section 4g2 and Sidebar 4.1 for more details about Hurricane Ian). Over the last seven years (2016–2022), 122 separate billion-dollar disasters have killed at least 5000 people and incurred costs greater than $1 trillion (U.S. dollars) in damage.
Map depicting date, approximate location, and type of the 18 weather and climate disasters in the United States in 2022 whose losses each exceeded $1 billion (U.S. dollars). (Source: NOAA/NCEI.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
The tornado count for 2022 was slightly below average with 1143 tornadoes reported across the CONUS. March had triple its average number of verified tornadoes (234) and the most tornadoes for any March in the 1950–2022 record. One of the most significant severe weather days occurred on 5 April when approximately 68 tornadoes were reported from Mississippi to South Carolina, including an EF-4 tornado that struck the town of Pembroke, Georgia, causing damage, injuries, and one fatality.
3. MEXICO
—R. Pascual Ramírez and A. E. Martínez
Mexico’s mean annual temperature for 2022 was the eighth highest since national records began in 1950 (Fig. 7.6a). The national precipitation total for 2022 was 743.6 mm, which is slightly below the 1991–2020 average and ranked in the middle of the 73-year record (Fig. 7.6b). Precipitation was below average across the northeast, central region, and the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Conversely, the northwest, southern Baja California Peninsula, and the Yucatan Peninsula had above-average annual rainfall through the year (Fig. 7.7b).
Annual anomalies of (a) temperature (°C) and (b) precipitation (mm) for Mexico for the period 1950–2022 (1991–2020 base period). Black solid lines represent a 10-year running mean. (Source: National Meteorological Service of Mexico.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Annual anomalies of (a) mean temperature (°C) and (b) precipitation (% of average) over Mexico in 2022 (1991–2020 base period). (Source: National Meteorological Service of Mexico.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
(i) Temperature
The 2022 national average annual temperature was 22.0°C, which was 0.6°C above the 1991–2020 average (Fig 7.6a), marking the eighth-warmest year in the 73-year record. Although 2022 did not rank among Mexico’s five warmest years, the nation continued its warming trend, and 2022 marked the 13th consecutive year with an above-average national temperature. The year was characterized by above-average temperatures across much of the nation, although parts of the northwest and areas along the Gulf of Mexico coast experienced near- to below-average annual temperatures (Fig. 7.7a). February, March, October, and November each had monthly temperatures slightly below average, while the remaining months had above-average temperatures, with the month of May setting a record high.
During January–March, below-average temperatures were observed in the northwest and along the states in the Gulf of Mexico. The rest of the country had slightly above-average temperatures. From April through June, temperatures were near average from the central to southern regions of the country as the rainy season began; above-average temperatures were present across northern Mexico. When the rains reached the northwest region and the Sierra Madre Occidental, temperatures in the region dropped to below average between July and September. During October–December, above-average temperatures were present across central and southern Mexico, while slightly below- to near-normal temperatures prevailed in the northwest and along the states of the Gulf of Mexico.
(ii) Precipitation
The national precipitation total for 2022 was 743.4 mm (99.4% of average). Climatologically, September tends to be the nation’s rainiest month. However, similar to 2021, August 2022 contributed more than any other month to the annual precipitation total. Meanwhile, March was the driest month for the year and contributed the least to the annual total among all months, coinciding with the driest month climatologically.
During January–March, below-average rainfall was observed across most of the country, especially along the Sierra Madre Occidental and in Baja California, exacerbating drought conditions in the region. The Yucatan Peninsula and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico received above-average rainfall in January.
The onset of the rainy season from central to southern Mexico occurred in late May and early June. Tropical Storm Alex in the Gulf of Mexico and Hurricane Agatha in the Pacific were the main precursors of rainfall in early June. Monsoon rain began in the northwest at the end of June and continued through September. During the summer (June–August), rains associated with tropical cyclones were less than typical in the foothills of the Gulf of Mexico and the northeast. On the Pacific side, Hurricane Kay and Tropical Storm Lester brought considerable amounts of precipitation on the Pacific coast and in Baja California Sur. See sections 4g2 and 4g3 for more details about these hurricanes.
The last quarter of the year marks the transition between the end of the rainy season and the beginning of the dry season in Mexico. During this transition period, it is common to see a combination of tropical and winter systems. From September through December, three tropical cyclones (Orlene and Roslyn from the Pacific and Lisa from the Gulf of Mexico) and several cold fronts were the main sources of rainfall in Mexico. Mexico’s drought footprint was at its lowest for the year (7.48%) by 31 October, according to the North American Drought Monitor. The dry season began in late November, and the dry conditions led to an increase in drought, with close to 19% of the nation experiencing moderate to exceptional drought by the end of the year.
(iii) Notable events and impacts
Northeastern Mexico was severely affected by the lack of precipitation during most of the year. Rainfall deficits combined with high temperatures during March and April resulted in a wildfire in the state of Nuevo León that lasted more than 20 days. The fire spread rapidly due to strong winds, burning at least 5000 hectares. According to Mexico’s Drought Monitor, during the first half of the year, severe to exceptional drought prevailed in most of the northern portion of the country. During this time, there were 6305 forest fires and over 400,000 hectares burned. At the end of the year, a total of 6755 forest fires were recorded that burned 739,626 hectares (National Forestry Commission), the second-largest area burned by fires, behind only 2011 (956,404 hectares), according to fire data that began in 1998.
Only three tropical cyclones (Tropical Storms Alex and Karl and Hurricane Lisa) from the Atlantic basin (see section 4g2 for details) affected Mexico’s eastern coast during 2022. On the Pacific side, Hurricanes Agatha, Blas, Kay, Orlene, and Roslyn, as well as Tropical Storm Lester, made landfall or tracked near the country and brought significant rainfall to the western region (see section 4g3 for details). Precipitation from these Pacific systems caused floods and landslides, mainly around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the Pacific coast, as well as the Baja California Peninsula.
c. Central America and the Caribbean
—A. Sánchez-Lugo, Ed.
1. CENTRAL AMERICA
—H. G. Hidalgo, J. A. Amador, E. J. Alfaro, B. Calderón, and N. Mora
For this region, nine stations from five countries were analyzed (see Fig. 7.8 for data and station list). The station distribution is representative of the relevant seasonal and intraseasonal regimes of precipitation (Amador 1998; Magaña et al. 1999; Amador et al. 2016a,b), wind (Amador 2008), and temperature (Hidalgo et al. 2019) on the Caribbean and Pacific slopes of Central America (CA). Precipitation and temperature records for the stations analyzed and regional winds were provided either by CA National Weather Services (CA-NWS), NOAA, or the University of Costa Rica. Anomalies are reported using a 1991–2020 base period and were calculated from CA-NWS data. The methodologies used for all variables can be found in Amador et al. (2011).
Mean surface temperature (Tm; °C) frequency (F; days) and accumulated pentad precipitation (P; mm) time series are presented for nine stations (blue dots) in Central America: (1) Philip Goldson International Airport, Belize; (2) Puerto Barrios, Guatemala; (3) Puerto Lempira, Honduras; (4) Puerto Limón, Costa Rica; (5) Tocumen International Airport, Panamá; (6) David, Panamá; (7) Liberia, Costa Rica; (8) Choluteca, Honduras; (9) Puerto San José, Guatemala. The blue solid line represents the 1991–2020 average values and the red solid line shows 2022 values. Vertical dashed lines show the mean temperature for 2022 (red) and the 1991–2020 period (blue). Vectors indicate July wind anomalies at 925 hPa (1991–2020 base period). Shading depicts regional elevation (m). (Sources: NOAA/NCEI and CA-NWS.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
(i) Temperature
The mean temperature (Tm, °C) pentad frequency distributions in 2022 as well as the climatology for all stations analyzed are shown in Fig. 7.8. Most stations across Central America had near-average annual temperatures. Only the stations of David, Panamá (Tm6), and Liberia, Costa Rica (Tm7) had significant (in the tails of the 95% confidence distributions using a t-test) below-average annual temperature anomalies of −0.8°C and −1.3°C, respectively. The two northernmost stations in the Caribbean coast, Philip Goldson International Airport, Belize (Tm1), and Puerto Barrios, Guatemala (Tm2), had a bimodal temperature distribution over the course of the seasonal cycle during 1991–2020. This was also reported in the last two yearly climate reports. However, contrary to what was found for the 2021 data, the two-peak distribution in mean temperature is not clearly visible in both stations in 2022, a feature observed in the temperature records of this location in the period 2017–21 (Amador et al. 2018). In terms of seasonal changes, only Liberia, Costa Rica (Tm7) had significant (in the tails of the 95% confidence distributions) below-average temperatures in all seasons.
(ii) Precipitation
The accumulated pentad precipitation (P, mm) time series for the nine stations in Central America is presented in Fig. 7.8. Most stations had near-average annual rainfall totals, with the exceptions of Puerto Barrios, Guatemala (P2), which had an above-average total accumulation of 751 mm (119% of normal) and Puerto Limon, Costa Rica (P4), which had an exceptionally dry year with a deficit of 1618 mm (56% of normal). Most of the stations in the Pacific coast had above-average annual accumulations, consistent with the cold phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (La Niña) teleconnection response in the area. The prevailing wind patterns (Fig. 7.8) increased flow from the Pacific Ocean to the coast in the southernmost regions and resulted in larger accumulations in those stations (David, Panamá [P6]; Liberia, Costa Rica [P7]; and Choluteca, Honduras [P8]). However, farther north near the El Salvador and Guatemala border, the anomalies were much weaker, and the annual precipitation totals were below average (San Jose, Guatemala [P9]). Another contributor to the anomalously wet Pacific coast in the southern countries is that 2022 was the third consecutive year with an anomalously active hurricane season in both basins. At seasonal scales, extreme precipitation (in the tail of the distribution of the annual values from 1991 to 2020) occurred during winter in Puerto Barrios, Guatemala (P2), and in spring and autumn in Tocumen, Panamá (P5).
(iii) Notable events and impacts
Tropical cyclone activity in the Caribbean in 2022 consisted of five named storms in the basin: Tropical Storm Bonnie (1–2 July) and Hurricanes Fiona (17–19 September), Ian (23–27 September), Julia (7–9 October), and Lisa (31 October–3 November). Three of the five storms affected the Central American isthmus. Bonnie made landfall and crossed Central America near the Costa Rican-Nicaraguan border. Strong winds and heavy rains from Bonnie affected the region, and two fatalities in El Salvador were associated with the storm. Bonnie exited into the eastern Pacific basin, moving westward, away from the Central American coast by 4 July.
Julia was a Category 1 hurricane that made landfall on the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua on 9 October. Direct and indirect effects were observed across Central America, as Julia became the deadliest cyclone of the season with over 30 fatalities in the region. Julia also managed to survive its passage through the isthmus and continued its path into the eastern Pacific basin. The system moved to the west and then to the west-northwest, parallel to and near the coasts of Nicaragua and El Salvador. On 10 October, the center of the storm crossed the coast of El Salvador and later affected Guatemala. (see Sidebar 7.1 for additional details)
Hurricane Lisa made landfall as a Category 1 hurricane on the coast of Belize on 2 November. There were no systems from the eastern tropical Pacific that impacted Central America.
Other rain-producing systems caused landslides and flooding that killed 110 people: 2 in Panamá, 10 in Costa Rica, 7 in Nicaragua, 27 in El Salvador, 12 in Honduras, and 52 in Guatemala. Lightning strikes caused 13 fatalities in the region during the season (three in Costa Rica, three in Nicaragua, one in El Salvador, four in Honduras, and two in Guatemala).
Please refer to sections 4g2 and 4g3 for more information on these tropical cyclones.
2. CARIBBEAN
—T. S. Stephenson, M. A. Taylor, A. Trotman, C. J. Van Meerbeeck, J. Spence-Hemmings, L. Clarke, J. Campbell, and K. Kerr
(i) Temperature
The Caribbean had relatively small positive temperature anomalies in 2022 compared to the previous four years (2018–21, as analyzed from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis version 5 [ERA5] reanalysis data). The annual temperature anomaly for the region was 0.42°C above average, marking the eighth-warmest year since records began in 1950 (Fig 7.9a). Annual temperatures have increased at a rate of 0.11°C decade−1 since 1950 (0.17°C decade−1 since 1970). Much of the region had above-average annual temperatures for 2022 (Fig. 7.10a). Freeport, Bahamas, had its warmest year on record since 1973, with an annual average maximum temperature of 29.7°C (1.0°C above average) and Canefield, Dominica, equaled its highest annual average maximum temperature at 31.8°C (0.7°C above average) since 1985. The Sancti Spiritus Airport and the National Airport at Camagüey in Cuba each recorded their third-warmest year in the 52-year record with annual average maximum temperatures of 31.5°C (0.9°C above average) and 31.3°C (0.7°C above average), respectively. Conversely, Grantley Adams, Barbados, had its ninth-lowest annual average maximum temperature since 1979 at 29.7°C, which was 0.5°C below average.
Annual average (a) 2-m temperature anomalies (°C) and (b) rainfall anomalies (mm day−1) for the Caribbean (9°N–27°N, 58°W–90°W) for 1950–2022 relative to the 1991–2020 average. The red line is the 10-yr running mean. (Sources: ERA5 from the KNMI Climate Explorer.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Annual (a) mean temperature anomalies (°C) and (b) total precipitation anomalies (% of normal) relative to 1991–2020. (Source: Caribbean Climate Outlook Forum [CariCOF] and the Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Seasonally, December–February and March–May temperatures were above average for most of the region. The temperature anomaly averaged regionally for March–May was +0.46°C and the eighth-warmest such period on record. June–August temperatures were near average across much of the Caribbean, but parts of Barbados, northern Belize, Curaçao, Jamaica, and Trinidad had below-average temperatures. There were fewer heatwaves (defined by the Caribbean Climate Outlook Forum as periods of at least two consecutive days with daily maximum temperatures exceeding the 90th percentile) in 2022 than in recent years (May–October). St. Kitts recorded its highest daytime maximum temperature of 33°C on 5 July and again on 8 July. The September–November temperature anomaly for the region was 0.50°C above the 1991–2020 average and the seventh warmest on record since 1950.
(ii) Precipitation
Most of the Caribbean islands had near-average rainfall during 2022 (Fig. 10b). The average rainfall anomaly for the region was −0.22 mm day−1 (Fig 7.9b). Moderately-to-exceptionally wet conditions were observed across the northern Bahamas (in the far north Caribbean) and Trinidad (eastern Caribbean). Three locations in Trinidad reported their highest rainfall totals: Caroni (3422.9 mm, 158% of average; since 1985), Hillsborough (3264.9 mm, 147% of average; since 1971), and Hollis (4281.5 mm, 144% of average; since 1971). Two other locations in Trinidad had their second-highest amounts since 1971: Navet (3141.9 mm, 143% of average) and Piarco (2378.9 mm, 132% of average). Rancho Coloso, Aguada, Puerto Rico, had its second-highest annual rainfall total (2403.1 mm, 132% of average) since 1971. It was also dry in places. With records dating from 1979, E.T. Joshua, St. Vincent, recorded its lowest annual rainfall total (1511.1 mm, 70% of average). Since 1971, El Valle, Hato Mayor, Dominican Republic, experienced its second-driest year (717.9 mm, 50% of average), Rivière, Martinique, had its fourth-driest year (1797.6 mm,70% of average), and La Trinité, Martinique, recorded its fifth-driest year (1522.3 mm, 72% of average).
December–February was characterized by a lingering seasonal dryness throughout most of the eastern Caribbean, with many islands experiencing moderate-to-severely dry conditions. During spring (March–May), the region transitioned to near- to above-average rainfall, with the exception of the Cayman Islands and the Leeward Islands where below-average conditions prevailed. Summer (June–August) rainfall anomalies were mixed over the region with most islands recording above-average precipitation, consistent with the ongoing La Niña event in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. The La Niña signature continued into September–November, with Cuba and southwest Haiti receiving below-average rainfall while other locations (generally in the south and east) had above-average precipitation.
(iii) Notable events and impacts
Hurricane Fiona crossed the eastern Caribbean as a tropical storm on 16–20 September, causing minor damage for most locations. However, Fiona left considerable damage to infrastructure in Guadeloupe and caused one fatality. Hurricane Fiona made landfall in Puerto Rico on 18 September and resulted in widespread flooding and loss of power across the entire island, impacting over one million people. The storm intensified and severely impacted the Dominican Republic on 19 September and the Turks and Caicos Islands on 20 September. Fiona was associated with two fatalities each in Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic.
Hurricane Ian impacted Jamaica as a tropical storm on 26 September and resulted in landslides, mudslides, fallen trees, and floods, and left some communities inaccessible. Damage to the road network was estimated to be $2.3 million (U.S. dollars). Ian impacted the Cayman Islands as a Category 1 hurricane on 26 September. Debris generated from flooding made some areas inaccessible. Hurricane Ian made direct landfall in Pinar del Rio, western Cuba, with maximum sustained winds of 185 km h−1. The storm reportedly caused three deaths and, in Pinar del Rio province, damaged 63,000 homes.
Nicole made landfall on Grand Bahama Island on 9 November as a Category 1 hurricane. Coastal flooding from storm surge was reported around the Abaco Islands. Flooding in coastal areas near Nassau, New Providence, reportedly caused two road closures.
Please refer to section 4g2 for more details on these storms and to Sidebar 4.1 for more information about Hurricanes Fiona and Ian.
Notable events across Central America
—S. FUHRMAN, C. RECALDE, AND W. M. THIAW
Heavy rains plagued Central America for large portions of the year. In February, Honduras’s national disaster agency Permanent Contingency Commission of Honduras (COPECO) reported high river levels, flooding, damaged houses, and infrastructure over the Atlántida, Yoro, the Bay Islands, and Cortés Departments of Honduras. Notably, the Leán River overflowed its banks in Atlántida department, where around 500 homes were affected and at least 300 families were evacuated.
During the end of May, dangerous rains were widespread across Guatemala where the National Coordination for Disaster Reduction agency (CONRED) reported that over 38,900 people were affected in the municipalities of Villa Nueva, Aguacatán, Nebaj, Chiquimulilla, Solola, Estanzuela, Gualán, and Zacapa.
Continued heavy rains, 150%–200% of normal September totals (Fig. SB7.1), caused deadly and destructive impacts in several countries. In El Salvador, the General Directorate of Civil Protection reported that homes were damaged and one person died after rivers overflowed in La Paz and San Salvador departments. The agency also reported five fatalities from a landslide in the La Libertad department. In Costa Rica, the National Emergency Commission (CNE) said personnel responded to floods in 191 locations. According to the Red Cross, about 80 homes were damaged and 50 people evacuated in San Jose province after the Cañas River overflowed.
Satellite-estimated rainfall (% of normal) during Sep 2022. Anomalies are computed with respect to the 1998–2020 base period. (Source: NOAA Climate Prediction Center’s CMORPH.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Landslides and floods affected Panama during November. According to the National Civil Protection System (SINAPROC), more than 300 families in three south-central provinces were affected by flooding on 10 November. SINAPROC also reported two fatalities in a landslide in Cativá, Colón Province, on 21 November.
Conversely, two periods of insufficient rain during the first and second rainy seasons impacted Central America, which resulted in abnormal dryness and degraded vegetation health. In Guatemala and western Honduras, rainfall was less than 50% of normal during April, according to Climate Prediction Center morphing technique (CMORPH) analysis, which led to a period of abnormal dryness in May. While May rainfall improved in central Guatemala and Honduras, continued suppression (less than 50% of normal rainfall) during May and June kept abnormal dryness in place over northern Guatemala until the third week of June. A second period of insufficient rains led to a short period of abnormal dryness in northern Guatemala, eastern Honduras, and Nicaragua during the third dekad (10-day period) of September and the first dekad of October. Rainfall deficits in these regions exceeded 100 mm and September’s rainfall was 25%–80% of average, according to CMORPH (Fig. SB7.1).
Two tropical cyclones made landfall in Central America during the 2022 Atlantic hurricane season: Tropical Storm Bonnie and Hurricane Julia (Fig. SB7.2). Tropical Storm Bonnie made landfall on 2 July near the Caribbean coast in southern Costa Rica with sustained winds of 85 km hr−1 and traversed southern Nicaragua, moving northwest across the country to the Pacific Ocean coast near El Salvador. In Nicaragua, heavy rains flooded 21 municipalities, resulting in four casualties, over 400 houses damaged, and more than 3000 people displaced, according to the country’s National System for the Prevention, Mitigation and Attention of Disasters.
Plot of the tracks of the two tropical cyclones (Bonnie and Julia) that made landfall in Central America during the 2022 hurricane season. Size of the circle indicates the relative strength of the storm. (Source: National Hurricane Center best track archive.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Although no deaths were reported in Costa Rica, heavy rainfall caused floods and landslides, and about 1600 people were evacuated to storm shelters; damage to highway bridges and agriculture was also reported. Heavy rain in El Salvador caused floods and damaged infrastructure, which led to three casualties and the evacuation of about 243 people to shelters, according to Civil Protection.
Julia made landfall in Nicaragua on 9 October as a Category 1 hurricane, weakening into a tropical storm before affecting several Central America countries. Hurricane Julia’s impacts in Nicaragua affected approximately 7500 people, flooded 3000 houses, displaced 2000 roofs from winds, overflowed 78 rivers, and collapsed walls; however, no casualties were reported. Meanwhile, the storm’s passage in Guatemala affected about 66,350 people, led to 15 casualties, and damaged roads and bridges. Impacts to El Salvador included floods, landslides, over 10 casualties, and the overflow of at least 78 rivers. Damage in Panama was less severe; there, the storm caused landslides, the collapse of some infrastructures, and the evacuation of people in the province of Chiriquí.
Forest fire activity was high in Central America, especially in Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica. In Guatemala, the National Coordination for Disaster Reduction organization reported that during the fire season, there were 950 incidents, which affected 21,877 hectares, and local news reported that there were at least 10 fatalities. The report also added that much of the wildfire activity was due to human activities such as agriculture or pasture burning. Meanwhile, the Honduran Forest Conservation Institute reported more than 98,000 hectares were affected by 1202 forest fires. One of the most intense wildfire incidents occurred during March in the Biological Reserve Lomas de Barbudal in the province of Guanacaste, Costa Rica, where 1715 hectares burned, affecting diverse flora and fauna.
d. South America
—A. Sanchez-Lugo, Ed.
Much of South America had near- to above-average annual temperatures in 2022, with several locations across the north experiencing below-average annual temperatures. As a whole, South America had an annual temperature that was 0.11°C above average, tying with 2018 as the 11th highest since continental records began in 1910. Nine of South America’s 10 warmest years have occurred since 2010.
Precipitation varied greatly across the continent, with much of the north and northwest receiving above-average annual rainfall, while much of the western and southern regions had below-average annual rainfall.
Anomalies in this section are all based on the 1991–2020 base period, unless otherwise noted.
1. NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA
—J.J. Nieto, F. Costa, and J. Morán
The northern South America region includes Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela.
(i) Temperature
Mean annual temperature anomalies for most of the region were near to below average (Fig. 7.11). The most notable cool temperature anomaly was along the Caribbean coast of Colombia. Parts of southern Colombia, on the other hand, had near- to above-average mean annual temperatures. In northern Ecuador, temperature anomalies were between 0.5°C and 1.0°C below average.
2022 mean annual temperature anomalies (°C; 1991–2020 base period). (Source: data from NMHSs of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Processed by CIIFEN.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
While temperatures were near to below average for much of the region (where data were available) during March–May, June–July, and September–October, there were some locations, specifically in the southern half of Colombia, that had above-average temperatures during March–May and June–July. An analysis was not available for December–February for the region due to lack of data at the time of this writing.
(ii) Precipitation
Precipitation across northern South America was generally above average during 2022 (Fig. 7.12). This could be associated with the warm sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) across the Caribbean region throughout much of the year, as well as the La Niña that was present across the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean during 2022.
Annual precipitation anomalies (%; 1991–2020 base period) for 2022. (Source: data from NMHSs of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Processed by CIIFEN.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Suriname had on average 30% above-normal precipitation for the year, with most of the rain falling during winter (December–February 2021/22) and autumn (September–November). Precipitation varied throughout the year for Venezuela. Most locations along the northern coast of Venezuela had near- to below-average precipitation during spring and summer (June–August); however, above-average conditions predominated during autumn, with some locations receiving twice their normal precipitation. The annual precipitation totals across most locations in Venezuela were near average. Much of the Caribbean and the Andean region of Colombia had above-average precipitation throughout the year, with annual totals 20%–30% above average. The highest seasonal precipitation totals fell during June–August, with some stations recording precipitation anomalies as high as +150%. In Ecuador, most locations also had near- to above-average annual precipitation, while the coastal region had anomalies close to 20% below average.
(iii) Notable events and impacts
An intense rainfall event occurred on 8 October in the city of Las Tejerías, Aragua, Venezuela, when 108 mm fell in six hours, equivalent to the average monthly rainfall for this region. The main cause of this event was the passage of Hurricane Julia in the Caribbean. The heavy rain fell over an area that was already saturated after receiving 180% of its normal precipitation in September. As a result of the October storm, a torrential flow of mud and debris inundated the city, resulting in 56 fatalities, forcing 10,000 residents to relocate, and damaging or destroying almost 800 homes. Economic losses were estimated at $500 million (U.S. dollars). Hurricane Julia also affected parts of Colombia. La Guajira received 120 mm of rain in 12 hours. The storm affected over 48,000 people and 174 homes were destroyed. On the islands of San Andrés and Providencia, more than 490 people were affected, roads were damaged, and more than 120 homes were damaged or destroyed.
Rainfall totals were atypical during 2022 in Barranquilla, a city in northern Colombia, with some places receiving as much as twice their normal precipitation. This event could be associated with La Niña since it increases the probability of tropical wave occurrences in the Caribbean. Notably, on 4 November, rainfall totals exceeding 70 mm in a 40-minute period were reported in the city.
In the city of Babahoyo, Province of Los Ríos, Ecuador, 140 mm of rain fell in the early hours of 12 March, prompting floods that inundated roads, damaged homes, affected over 100 families, and caused the San Pablo River to rise by 6.5 meters. The heavy rain was associated with increased convection due to sea-surface warming on the Ecuadorian coast.
2. CENTRAL SOUTH AMERICA
—J. A. Marengo, J. C. Espinoza, L. M. Alves, J. Ronchail, A. P. Cunha, A. M. Ramos, J. Molina-Carpio, K. Correa, G. Avalos, W. Lavado-Casimiro, J. Baez, R. Salinas, W. R. Quispe, and K. Quisbert
The central South America region includes Brazil, Peru, Paraguay, and Bolivia.
(i) Temperature
The 2022 mean temperature for central South America was 0.23°C above the 1991–2020 average (Fig. 7.13). Much of the region had near- to above-average mean annual temperatures (Fig. 7.11). Seasonally, during December–February, much of the northern half of Brazil and some areas in northwestern Peru and southwestern Bolivia had near- to below-average temperatures. Meanwhile, the rest of region had near- to above-average conditions. During boreal autumn (March–May), most of the region experienced near- to above-average temperatures, with southern Peru and southwestern Bolivia observing below-average temperatures. Above-average temperatures also encompassed much of the region during boreal winter (June–August), with some locations experiencing mean temperature anomalies that were +2°C or higher. Parts of southern Peru continued to experience near- to below-average conditions during their winter. Below-average temperatures were observed in southern Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay during September–November, while the rest of the region experienced near- to above-average temperatures.
Time series of mean annual regional air-temperature anomalies (°C; 1991–2020 base period) for the period 1961–2022 for central South America (Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Peru). (Source: NOAA /NCEP GHCN CAMS data.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
(ii) Precipitation
Above-average annual precipitation was observed across parts of northern and eastern Brazil, while the rest of central South America had below-average annual precipitation (Fig. 7.12). Abundant rainfall in the central and northern Amazon and drought in the southern Amazon and Parana-La Plata basin (LPB) were associated with La Niña in 2022.
Below-average rainfall was dominant during the austral summer in southern Peru, eastern Bolivia, southeastern Brazil, and parts of Paraguay, suggesting an early ending to the South American Monsoon. Above-average rainfall was observed across much of eastern Brazil and southwestern Bolivia during the austral summer. During boreal autumn, below-average rainfall extended across southern Peru, Bolivia, and southern parts of Brazil. Southern Paraguay and the northern region and southern tip of Brazil had above-average autumn rainfall. Much of southern Peru, the western half of Bolivia, and parts of southern Brazil reported little to no rain during the boreal winter. Meanwhile, northern Peru, eastern Bolivia, and northeastern and southeastern Brazil had above-average rainfall during winter. Boreal spring was characterized by below-average conditions across much of the region, with central Paraguay and northeastern Brazil experiencing above-average rainfall.
(iii) Notable events and impacts
Several significant weather extremes occurred across central South America in 2022, as shown in Fig. 7.14. Some of these events are discussed in more detail below.
Extreme and notable events across central South America in 2022. (Sources: Peru: SENAMHI; Bolivia: SENAMHI, Paraguay: DMH; Brazil: INMET, CEMADEN, CLIMATEMPO, INPE; International: UN OCHA, Flood list, UNDRR.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
The La Plata Basin had drought-induced damage to agriculture and reduced crop production, including soybeans and maize, which affected global crop markets. The 2022 drought conditions across the Basin were the worst since 1944 (Fig. 7.15). Several locations across Bolivia had record-dry conditions since the 1950s throughout the year when rainfall totals were between 4% and 45% of normal. The dry conditions affected over 160 Bolivian municipalities, including more than 3100 communities, 171,000 families, and 247,000 hectares (SENAMHI-Bolivia). In the southern Andes of Peru, drought conditions were the worst they had been since 1965, with rainfall ranging from none to 40% of normal. The rainfall deficits in the region were associated with the persistence of the continuous La Niña event in the tropical Pacific Ocean.
Integrated Drought Index (IDI) maps for central South America during (a) DJF 2021/22, (b) MAM 2022, (c) JJA 2022, and (d) SON 2022. (Source: CEMADEN.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
An intensely invigorated mesoscale convective system on 15 February brought heavy rain to parts of Brazil. Of note, Petrópolis (Rio de Janeiro) received 258 mm of rain in just three hours and a total of 530 mm in 24 hours (the monthly February average is 210 mm). This caused the worst disaster in Petrópolis since 1931 with over 230 fatalities (Alcantara et al. 2023). During 2–4 April, Petrópolis and the city of Angra dos Reis (coastal region in the state of Rio de Janeiro) were affected by record rainfall when over 800 mm fell in 48 hours in each location. The torrential rain prompted floods and landslides that caused widespread damage to the area. Paraty was one of the worst-affected areas. A landslide destroyed seven houses, burying at least eight residents.
Heavy rain on 20 February in the Bolivian Tarija department caused a 2 m-high torrent of water, mud, and debris to slide down a narrow ravine, destroying homes, crops, and livestock in various Guarani communities. The precipitation was mainly due to intense convective activity in the region associated with a cold front that crossed the southern Bolivia-northern Argentina region. In Rondônia in western Brazilian Amazonia, heavy rain from early February increased river levels, causing flooding in the municipality of Cacoal and the evacuation of 19,400 families. Damaged roads and bridges left many communities isolated.
The Rio Negro at Manaus reached the severe flood stage of 29 m in early May and 29.37 m by 23 May, the fourth-highest level since 1903. The three highest levels occurred in 2021, 2012, and 2009 (Espinoza et al. 2022). The Civil Defense reported that flooding affected over 306,000 people across the Amazonas state, and 35 municipalities declared a state of emergency.
Exceptional heavy rain fell in northeastern Brazil at the end of May. The city of Recife received 551 mm during 25–30 May, which is 140 mm more than its average total for May. The torrential rains affected 130,000 people and caused over 90 fatalities, and the city declared a state of emergency (Marengo et al. 2023). In Alagoas, 97.6 mm of rain fell in 24 hours in Porto de Pedras Largo on 2 July, resulting in more than 39,000 people evacuating their homes due to flooding.
In southern Brazil, parts of the state of Santa Catarina received over 300 mm of rain in a 72-hour period during 3–5 May. By 6 May, at least three people died, and thousands of people were displaced due to floods and landslides. On 20 December, in Camboriu (in Brazil’s state of Santa Catarina), a total of 256 mm of rain fell in 24 hours, which is more than the monthly normal of 158 mm. The heavy rain triggered intense flash floods in the affected region.
On 16 May, Subtropical Storm Yakecan favored the intensification of a cold air surge that reached most of subtropical South America east of the Andes. In Brazil, a cold wave from 16 to 23 May, the country’s longest cold event in 2022, affected most of the country, along with western Amazonia and Bolivia. On 18 May, the city of São Paulo recorded its third-lowest May minimum temperature in 32 years when temperatures dropped to 6.6°C, which is 6.5°C below average. In Gama (Brasilia), the minimum temperature was 1.4°C on 19 May (normal is 15.6°C), the lowest there since 1963. In the Bolivian Altiplano, the El Alto station reported its lowest May temperature on record when temperatures dropped to −9.8°C on 23 May, which is 9.2°C below average.
The central coastal region of Peru recorded its lowest minimum temperature in 15 years when temperatures dropped to 12.7°C on 13 August, which is 2.3°C below average. During 18–23 August, a cold spell impacted Santa Catarina (southern Brazil), bringing snow to the region’s mountains and below-freezing temperatures (−6.4°C, or 16.4°C below average) on 19 August in Bom Jardim da Serra. This was the second-coldest event in southern Brazil in 15 years.
During 13–26 January, a heatwave event was recorded at 90% of the meteorological stations in Paraguay. The warmest day was 24 January; Concepción recorded a maximum temperature of 43.0°C, which was 8.8°C above average. The longest heatwave, which lasted for 14 consecutive days, was detected in Encarnación.
3. SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA
—L. S. Aldeco, J. S. Stella, A. J. Reyes Kohler, N. Misevicius, and G. Jadra
The southern South America region includes Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay.
(i) Temperature
Near- to below-average temperatures were observed across most parts of southern South America (SSA) during 2022. The most notable below-average temperatures were recorded across Uruguay and northern Chile. The national mean temperature anomaly for Argentina was +0.2°C, marking its 20th-warmest year since national records began in 1961; Chile had its 10th-coldest year since 1961 at 0.24°C below normal; Uruguay had its second-coldest year since 1991 at 0.5°C below normal (Figs. 7.16a,b,c).
National annual temperature anomalies (°C; 1991–2020 base period) for (a) Argentina, (b) Chile, and (c) Uruguay for the period 1961–2022.
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
During austral summer (December–February) 2021/22, above-average mean temperatures were recorded across much of the region, with the exception of the northern half of Chile, which had below-average temperatures. The highest positive anomalies, up to +3°C, were in northeastern Argentina. Heatwaves affected the region, leading to new multiple historical maximum temperature records. The city of Florida in Uruguay recorded a maximum temperature of 44.0°C on 14 January, the highest value for this location since 1991; Rivadavia, Argentina, recorded 46.5°C on 1 January, which was the highest value for this location since 1961 and the highest value for the region and nation during 2022. Overall, Argentina observed its second-warmest summer since 1961, while Uruguay’s department of Artigas had its warmest summer since 1991.
During autumn (March–May), temperatures were below average across much of the region, while above-average temperatures were recorded across parts of northern, central, and southern Argentina and Chile. Cold irruptions on 31 May led to new historical minimum temperatures records in the region. Among the most notable were: −12.6°C in Chapelco, Argentina, the lowest minimum temperature record for May for this location since 1961; −4.3°C in Mercedes, Uruguay, the lowest minimum temperature for May for this location since 1991; and −5.9°C in Chillán, Chile, also a monthly record for this location.
Winter (June–August) was characterized by near- to above-average temperatures across Argentina, while below-average temperatures were present across Uruguay and most of Chile. Cold irruptions affected central Argentina and southern Patagonia, while a warm air mass affected northern Argentina, leading to both new minimum and maximum temperature records for July. Several cities across Uruguay, including Treinta y Tres, Colonia, and Rocha, set new low minimum monthly temperatures records (since the start of the record in 1991) during June and August.
Spring (September–November) temperatures were below average across much of Uruguay, Chile, and northern Argentina. Above-average temperatures were observed south of 33°S. An early heatwave in November affected the southern half of Argentina, with the highest temperatures (>30.0°C) in southern Argentina. Several locations set new daily and monthly maximum temperature records. Of note, temperatures of 31.2°C in Esquel on 3 November and 38.6°C in Ezeiza on 5 November were recorded. This was the highest maximum temperature for November since 1961 for each location. Meanwhile, the city of Treinta y Tres in Uruguay recorded its lowest monthly minimum temperature for September (6.8°C) since 1991.
(ii) Precipitation
Similar to previous years, most of SSA had below-average annual rainfall during 2022. The most-affected regions were Uruguay, Chile, northwestern Patagonia, and north-central Argentina (Fig. 7.12). The year 2022 adds to a long period of rainfall deficit in south-central Chile, which has been called “Mega Drought” and also marks the third consecutive year of rainfall deficit in most of the region due to La Niña (Fig. 7.17). Punta Arenas in southern Chile had its second-driest year since 1966. Eastern Patagonia and northwestern Argentina had above-average annual rainfall, as much as 20%–60% above average.
Standardized precipitation index (SPI) for January–December 2022. SPI values can be referenced here: https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/About/AbouttheData/DroughtClassification.aspx.
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
During austral summer 2021/22, drier-than-average conditions were observed across northern Argentina and northern Uruguay, mostly due to the effects of La Niña. In Argentina, rainfall was 60%–87% below average in the northern region and, in Uruguay, the greatest deficits were 40%–50% below average in Rivera and Artigas. However, sub-seasonal variability favored some precipitation events that led to above-average rainfall in southern Uruguay, northern Patagonia of Chile and Argentina, and central and northwestern Argentina. In Argentina, the highest anomalies were recorded in Patagonia, with several stations receiving 100%-above-average precipitation, and in some cases, more than 150% above average. In Uruguay, Cerro Chato recorded 477 mm in January, setting its highest January rainfall total since 1991. In northwestern Argentina, Tartagal recorded 163 mm on 4 February—the highest daily rainfall for February for this location since 1961.
During autumn, drier-than-average conditions were present across most of the region; nevertheless, frontal activity favored above-average rainfall in northeastern Argentina and northern Uruguay, ranging from +72% to +89%. In central and northwestern Argentina, most stations recorded little to no rain. In Uruguay, the stations in Colonia Rivera and Javier de Viana recorded 210 mm on 25 April, which was the highest daily April rainfall since 1991 for both locations.
During winter, below-average precipitation was recorded across most of the region, with several stations having their driest June on record (since 1961 in Argentina and 1991 in Uruguay). Northern Patagonia had above-average precipitation of +45% to +88%, mainly due to snow events during the season. Local precipitation events led to new records. Quebracho, Uruguay, received 205 mm on 25 August—its highest daily precipitation total for August since 1991; Freirina Nicolasa in Chile recorded its most intense precipitation event since 1991, with 33.1 mm in six hours on 11 July.
During spring, drought intensified with the peak of La Niña. The driest regions were recorded in Uruguay and central and northeastern Argentina, with some areas receiving little to no rainfall. Above-average rainfall was recorded in eastern Patagonia, with the highest daily rainfall for September since 1961 recorded in Comodoro Rivadavia (82.1 mm on 20 September, 228% of normal).
(iii) Notable events and impacts
Figure 7.18 shows numerous notable events that occurred across the region during 2022. Several are discussed in more detail below.
Extreme and notable events in southern South America (Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay) during 2022.
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
Argentina, parts of Uruguay, and Chile experienced severe drought conditions throughout much of 2022 (Fig. 7.17), which affected the region’s hydrology. Extreme drought conditions prevailed across central Argentina and southern Uruguay from May onward, mostly due to the prolonged La Niña event. Between October and December, severe drought conditions spread to northeastern Argentina. Several locations in Argentina observed their driest year on record, ranging between 50% and 60% of normal precipitation: Corrientes (818.8 mm); Paso de los Libres (773.3 mm); Rosario (561.1 mm); Junín (591.7 mm); Ezeiza (507.0 mm); Río Cuarto (457.0 mm); La Plata (567.1 mm). Due to the impacts across most of the region, this drought is considered one of the worst on record.
During January, a blocking event led to persistent heatwaves in central and northern Argentina and Uruguay, with several locations recording maximum temperatures above 40.0°C. In Argentina, the heatwave lasted for most of the month and was considered one of the most intense and prolonged heatwaves. In Uruguay, two heatwaves occurred: 12–16 January and 20–23 January. Summer 2022 was the driest summer for Corrientes, northern Argentina, which received only 83.1 mm (21% of normal) of precipitation. Drought conditions combined with high temperatures enabled the development of fires and bushfires during summer, burning close to 800,000 hectares.
e. Africa
—A. Mekonnen, Ed.
This analysis for Africa is based on observational records from meteorological and hydrological services across the region, rainfall from the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP), and reanalysis products from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR). Notable events in 2022 were compiled based on reports from government agencies, regional and international organizations, and research/Early Warning organizations. The climatological base period is 1991–2020, and the terms “normal” and “average” are interchangeably used to refer to this climatology.
Figure 7.19 presents the 2022 mean temperature anomalies for Africa. Annual temperatures greater than 1°C above normal were observed over most of northwest Africa (Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia), while Mali, Niger, Chad, and northern Nigeria had annual mean temperatures as much as 2°C below normal. Most of eastern and equatorial Africa experienced above-normal temperatures (Fig. 7.19). Except for some areas across the western half of Angola, most of Africa south of the equator remained within their annual normal temperature ranges.
2022 annual mean temperature anomalies for Africa (°C; base period 1991–2020). (Source: NCEP/NCAR.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
West Africa north of 10°N received above-average annual rainfall, while rains over the Guinea Highlands and Nigeria were below normal. Rainfall over Ethiopia, Kenya, northern Uganda, and northern Tanzania in eastern Africa were below normal. Rainfall over the adjoining areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, and Angola were more than 1 mm day−1 below normal (Fig. 7.20a).
(a) 2022 annual rainfall anomalies for Africa (mm day−1; base period 1991–2020). (Source: NCEP/NCAR.) (b) Rainfall anomalies (mm day−1) for West Africa (10°N–15°N, 15°W–10°E; base period 1991–2020) for the period Jul–Sep from 2000 to 2022. (Source: GPCP v2.3.)
Citation: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 104, 9; 10.1175/2023BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1