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Fig . 1.Schematic summary of the processes affecting the SST variability in the WBC region.
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Fig . 2.Climatological mean (contours) and standard deviation (color shading) of the annual mean SST for 1982–2008 based on the NOAA high-resolution (0.25° latitude × 0.25° longitude) SST dataset version 2 (Reynolds et al. 2007). The contour intervals (CIs) for the mean are 2°C: (a) North Pacific and (b) North Atlantic.
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Fig . 3.Latitude–depth sections for five-winter (January–March) mean fields of temperature (black contours) and meridional gradient (color shading; top right) for (top) 1984–88 and (middle) 1968–72, based on their averages between 145° and 160°E for (left) the OFES simulation and (right) hydrographic observations compiled by White (1995). (bottom) Color shadings (bottom right) indicate the changes in five-winter mean temperature from 1968–72 to 1984–88. CIs for temperature are 1°C. Unit for the gradients is °C (100 km)−1. [After Nonaka et al. (2006)]
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Fig . 4.Monthly 1° resolution (a),(d) sensible heat flux (SHF; W m−2) and (b),(e) latent heat flux (LHF; W m−2) from the ocean for December (a),(b) 2003 and (d),(e) 2005 over the western North Pacific, shaded as indicated below (d) and (e). CIs are (a),(d) 30 (solid lines for ≥120; dashed lines for ≤90) and (b),(e) 50 (solid lines for ≥250; dashed lines for ≤200). Figures are based on the Japanese Ocean Flux Datasets with Use of Remote Sensing Observations (JOFURO; Kubota et al. 2002), which have been derived from moisture data from microwave sensor [Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP)/Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I)] and SST (Reynolds et al. 2007). ECMWF analysis data have also been incorporated into the estimation of SHF. Note that the East Asian winter monsoon in December was close to the normal strength in 2003, while in 2005 it was the strongest in the postwar period. (c),(f) Anomalous bimonthly SST tendency into January from November of 2003 and 2005, shaded as indicated. Contoured for the strong cooling tendency of 2° and 4°C. (From T. Miyasaka 2009, private communication).
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Fig . 5.Distribution of lag correlation coefficients as a function of depth with the reference temperature averaged from the sea surface to 20-m depth during March, the month of deepest MLD, for the (a) northern North Pacific (37°–45°N, 157°E–179°W), (b) northern North Atlantic (41°–53°N, 19°–35°W), (c) southern North Pacific (27°–33°N, 141°–159°E) and (d) southern North Atlantic (33°–39°N, 45°–65°W). The averaging regions are same as in Hanawa and Sugimoto (2004). The solid line in each panel denotes seasonal change of the MLD. The temperatures are from the Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA; Carton and Giese 2008) for the years 1958–2007 and the long-term mean MLD is from White (1995).
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Fig . 6.Vertical sections showing reemergence of SST anomalies over the North Pacific along the line between 30°N, 145°E and 34°N, 150°W. Red lines indicate domains where the correlation coefficients of subsurface temperature anomalies with a reference index exceed 0.7 for lags of (top to bottom) 0, 6, 9, and 12 months. The index has been defined as winter-mean SST anomalies averaged over 27°–33°N, 137°–154°E. Color shading represents the strength of vertical temperature gradient [°C (100 m)−1], as indicated on the right. Black lines denote the mixed layer bottom. (After Sugimoto and Hanawa 2005)
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Fig . 7.SSH anomalies along the zonal band of 32°–34°N in the North Pacific from (a) satellite altimeter data and (b) the wind-forced baroclinic Rossby wave model, where the winds are obtained from the NCEP–NCAR reanalysis (Kistler et al. 2001). (c) PDO SST index as defined by Mantua et al. (1997; available online at http://jisao.washington.edu/pdo/PDO.latest).
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Fig . 8.SSH anomalies along the zonal band of 32°–34°N in the North Atlantic from the satellite altimeter data. Solid contours indicate zero anomalies.
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Fig . 9.The composite El Niño–La Niña SST (shading, CI = 0.2°C) and climatological mean SST (contours, CI = 4°C) during (a) FMA (year 1), the winter after ENSO peaks, and (b) ASO (year 0), the previous summer. The observations are from the NOAA high-resolution (0.25° latitude × 0.25° longitude) SST dataset (Reynolds et al. 2007) that spans 1985–2007; 1987, 1991, 1997, 2002, 2006, and 1988, 1998, 1999, and 2005 and were used as year 0 in the El Niño (La Niña) composites. The regions of strong mean SST are associated with the KE and GS. (c) Composite El Niño–La Niña temperature (shading, CI = 0.2°C) and MLD during El Niño and La Niña events over the years 1958–2001 as a function of the ENSO cycle in the western North Pacific region [35°–45°N, 150°–180° E; gray box in (b)]. The temperatures are from SODA (Carton and Giese 2008) and the MLD from White (1995).
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Fig . 10.(a) The tropical SST anomaly (°C) used to force the AGCM–mixed layer model. (b) The 500-hPa response (m), during FMA given by the ensemble mean difference between simulations with positive and negative [−1 × those in (a)] tropical SST anomalies. (c) SST response in the 75-m mixed layer model driven by surface fluxes and Ekman heat transport. Shading denotes areas where the response is significant at the 95% level as estimated by a Student’s t test. (Adapted from Peng et al. 2006)
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Fig . 11.(a) Standard deviation of January–March (JFM) SST from NCEP–NCAR reanalysis I for 1948–2006. SST is low-pass filtered to retain periods >7 years. CIs are 0.1°C. (b) As in (a), but high-pass filtered to retain periods <7 years. Both (a) and (b) are reproduced based on Fig. 1 of Nakamura et al. (1997). (c),(d) As in (a),(b), but for the North Atlantic and with a 5-yr cutoff for the low-pass and high-pass filters. Five years were used for the cutoff of the low-pass and high-pass filters instead of 7 years as in the North Pacific to reflect the smaller basin size and thus a relatively shorter time for the Rossby wave for the adjustment of the basin via first baroclinic mode Rossby waves. However, consistent results are obtained from different cutoff between 5 and 10 years.
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Fig . 12.Leading EOFs of winter [November–March (NDJFM)] SST for 1982–2008 based on the NOAA high-resolution (0.25° latitude × 0.25° longitude) SST, version 2 (http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/sst/oi-daily.php). Note that the trends are not removed before calculating the EOFs. The amplitudes correspond to the 1σ change in the corresponding principal component time series. The fraction of total variance explained by each mode is shown in the bracket. The zero contours are plotted in black.
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Fig . 13.(a) The 22-yr mean of each winter’s (JFM) standard deviation of the 2–8-day bandpass-filtered daily latent heat flux from the objectively analyzed air–sea fluxes (OAFlux) for 1983–2004 (Yu et al. 2008). Contours are the climatological mean winter (JFM) SST with 2°C interval. (b) Interannual standard deviation of each winter (JFM)’s standard deviation of the 2–8-day bandpass-filtered daily latent heat flux. (c),(d) As in (a)
