1. Introduction
As an archipelago with about 17 504 islands and the third longest coastline in the world, Indonesia is highly vulnerable to climate change (Gaborit 2022). Coastal environments are at high risk of being affected by rising sea levels, greater frequency of high winds, increasing wave height, and increasing ocean temperature caused by climate change (Makris et al. 2023; Roy et al. 2023; Rumanti et al. 2018; Solyman and Abdel Monem 2020). Furthermore, rising concentrations of carbon dioxide that lead to a more acidic ocean could worsen existing problems in coastal areas (Zikra et al. 2015). More erosion, flooding, and water pollution affecting ecosystems in Indonesia’s highly populated coastal areas should be thoroughly anticipated and monitored.
Climate change’s alarming impact on the accumulation of water pollution, particularly soil salinity, has sparked widespread research interest. As consequences of rising atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, the increase in air temperature, decline in relative humidity, increase in extreme rainfall events, and increase in sea level have been identified as probable climate change indicators that significantly accelerate soil salinization (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2021). Rainfall and groundwater patterns influence the circumstances that cause salinity. When rainfall is insufficient to meet plants’ water needs and groundwater consumption compensates for this shortage, salts accumulate in the ecosystem (Nosetto et al. 2008). In arid environments, evapotranspiration, mixing with seawater, precipitation salt concentration, and dissolving of salt are the most prevalent causes of salinity (Colombani et al. 2016). As sea levels rise, the coastal lowlands are increasingly inundated with salty water, gradually polluting the fertile soil. Bridges and Oldeman (1999) calculate that, on a global scale, secondary salinization turns 3 ha of arable land into unproductive ones every minute. Consequently, salinization will likely reduce 10–20 million hectares of arable land to zero productivity annually (Bridges and Oldeman 1999).
The coastline of Indonesia is densely populated with around 150 million people (about 55% of the total population) who live and rely on agricultural activities and marine resources for their livelihoods. Most of those who work in on farms grow rice as the staple food of Indonesians. Indonesia has about 140 300 ha of saline land and 304 000 ha of slightly saline land (Rachman et al. 2018). Furthermore, based on the type of landforms in the map of Indonesian land exploration, those that are prone to salinity are the landform of alluvial basins, delta/estuarine plains, and tidal and coastal plains, which reach about 12.020 million ha or 6.20% of the total land area of Indonesia (Karolinoerita and Annisa 2020). Climate change leading to warmer temperatures, variability in rainfall, ocean acidification, drought, and floods has affected one-fifth of the world’s irrigated area, including productive agricultural land (Schattman et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2022). Climate change that triggers changes in salinity is predicted to continue to increase yearly (Castellano et al. 2019). Soil salinity in the coastal areas of Indonesia is a major concern because accelerated seawater intrusion not only reduces the area of productive agricultural land but also poses a severe threat to the destruction of food systems, food security, and sustainable agriculture in the long term (Hopmans et al. 2021).
In Indonesia, saline conditions are caused by sea level rise, floods, droughts, and other climate change effects (Estiningtyas et al. 2021; Murniati and Mutolib 2020). The salinity intrusion into cultivated land has threatened food production mainly because it reduces the available harvested area (Takama et al. 2021). Another study also indicates that the impact of salinity in several countries causes the loss of agricultural land and has created risks and uncertainties to agricultural activities (Dam et al. 2019a). In general, decreased growth due to salinity in the short term affects osmosis because of lower water availability. In the long term, salinity will affect ion toxicity because of the unbalanced uptake of plant nutrients and altered mineral nutrient status in plant tissue (Abbas et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2021). Previous studies have shown that excess salt in both the soil and nutrient solution causes a decrease in nitrogen uptake of plants such as rice, thereby reducing crop yields (Win et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2022). Therefore, salinity leads to zero productivity on some lands (decreasing overall land availability) and decreases crop yields in saline land that can still be used for crop cultivation (Alam et al. 2017). As a result, salinization reduces farmers’ income, food accessibility, food availability, and food security (Tui and Fakhruddin 2022; Tofu et al. 2022). Furthermore, climate change–induced salinity is anticipated to increase farmers’ production uncertainties. Indonesian farmers are particularly vulnerable to climate change–induced salinity because their livelihoods depend on natural conditions, which are particularly climate-sensitive (Tran et al. 2022; Trenberth 2015).
Most of the literature reviewed in this study discusses cultivation techniques to increase rice production in paddy fields disturbed by salinity. In Indonesia, there are several applied technologies for slightly inundated land, but they have yet to be able to reproduce maximum rice production (Anshori et al. 2019; Rumanti et al. 2018). Meanwhile, technology still needs to be available to address the problem of extensively flooded rice fields (Caplette et al. 2022; Doll et al. 2017). Water management, dams, and irrigation to control saltwater are some of the recommended solutions to address the problem of salinity-affected rice fields (Adam and Hermawan 2011; El-Agha et al. 2011). These technologies are effective in several countries but entail high costs (Patle et al. 2017). A further literature review shows that some studies address the widespread impacts of climate change in certain regions (Rondhi et al. 2018; Suryanto et al. 2020) but few specifically describe soil salinity triggers and their solutions. Therefore, this paper aims to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the climate change–induced soil salinity literature, discuss the impact of soil salinity on Indonesian agriculture, examine various strategies for adaptation to salinity, and deliver ideas for future research. Complementing previous studies, this paper uses bibliometric analysis to seek explanations for four specific research questions (RQs) in the Indonesian context:
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RQ1: What are the bibliometric variables related to climate change–induced salinity in Indonesia?
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RQ2: How can Indonesian agriculture reduce the vulnerability caused by salinity induced by climate change?
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RQ3: How do Indonesian farmers adapt to climate change–induced salinity?
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RQ4: What agronomic practices are farmers using to deal with soil salinity?
2. Methods and material
a. Conceptual framework
Climate change is a major predictor of soil salinity changes (Dam et al. 2019a,b). Rising average temperatures will cause higher evaporation, changes in precipitation patterns, and sea level rise (Kim et al. 2023). These variables increase or decrease water availability, flooding, and poor drainage (Fig. 1). These are all essential factors in soil salinity. In addition, sea level rise causes saltwater intrusion, rising groundwater levels, and low-lying flooding, all of which also contribute to soil salinity (Eswar et al. 2021). Salinity has become an important issue in Indonesia, especially in coastal areas (Subekti et al. 2020). Because of its effects on agriculture, aquaculture, infrastructure, coastal ecosystems, and the availability of freshwater for residential and commercial usage, increased salinity from saltwater intrusion poses the biggest danger to livelihoods and public health (FAO 2007; IPCC 2014). Understanding the physical and economic effects of salt diffusion and planning necessary adaptations are crucial for long-term development and poverty reduction in nations with sensitive coastal areas, such as Indonesia (Marfai 2014; Thaker et al. 2020).
Conceptual framework.
Citation: Weather, Climate, and Society 16, 1; 10.1175/WCAS-D-23-0025.1
The International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA) has initiated several programs to facilitate research studies on the impacts of soil salinity in agriculture. Improving Agricultural Resilience to Salinity through Development (RESEDA) and Rehabilitation and Management of Salt-Affected Soils to Improve Agricultural Productivity (RAMSAP) have developed several salt-affected agriculture interventions. Based on modeling, water accounting, and other tools, the ICBA proposed alternative policies and strategies for irrigation efficiency and agricultural water productivity, including air-to-water technology, precision agriculture, remote sensing and GIS applications, surface and groundwater modeling, and sustainable irrigation systems (Aboelsoud et al. 2022; Pittman et al. 2022). ICBA also introduced smallholder farmers to salt-resistant varieties of sorghum, pearl millet, peanuts, barley, and sesbania (Shahid and Singh 2020). Rice cultivars with a salinity tolerance of 12 decisiemens (dS) per meter at the germination stage and 10 dS m−1 at the flowering stage were bred by this institute, including Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) dhan 47, BRRI dhan 61, BRRI dhan 67, and BRRI dhan 78 (Sheoran et al. 2021). ICBA works with the national agricultural research and extension services (NARES) to increase the abilities of farmers and extension workers in salinity-resilient and climate-smart agriculture (ICBA 2019, 2020, 2021).
Based on the works of ICBA and previously published research studies, the following conceptual framework is formulated as guidance to find explanations for the four basic research questions of this study.
b. Bibliometric analysis and tools
This study was designed by employing a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. Analytical tools used were VOSviewer (version 1.6.19, from Leiden University in the Netherlands) and R package bibliometrics (performance: 3.1.3) in R (version 4.1.0; van Eck and Waltman 2010). In recent years, bibliometric analysis has become an important step in the early stages of research (Chiu et al. 2004) to help establish the background and importance of the research (Mukherjee et al. 2022; Putera et al. 2022). A bibliometric review allows researchers to understand a study with theoretical definitions strengthened by references (Bhairawa Putera and Pasciana 2023; Nayak et al. 2022). Bibliometric studies describe a process or sequence of events to produce something new (Colquitt and Zapata-Phelan 2007) and to identify answer research questions (Aria and Cuccurullo 2017; Hou et al. 2022).
Bibexcel, offered by Scopus, is one of the tools used to perform bibliometric analysis (Persson et al. 2009). Bibexcel allows analysis with software such as Pajek, Excel, SPP, Vosviewer, and others. Fundamental bibliometric analysis, citation analysis, and other functions can be performed via Bibexcel (Persson et al. 2009). Meanwhile, VOSviewer is a program for creating and visualizing bibliometric networks (van Eck et al. 2010). These networks can include individual journals, researchers, or publications, and they can be built on citations, bibliographical merging, cocitations, or coauthor relationships. VOSviewer has the advantage of focusing on the graphical representation of maps, making it easier to interpret when visualizing large maps (Castillo-Vergara et al. 2018). Furthermore, the analysis was completed by R package, using biblioshiny created by M. Aria and C. Cuccurullo. Selected papers were analyzed by R package, which is a statistical and graphical computer language in the R program (Aria and Cuccurullo 2017).
c. Data sources and processing
Scopus is the world’s most comprehensive article data center, introduced to the wider community in 2004 by Elsevier. Data imported from Scopus is stored and restructured before it can be processed by VOSviewer and R package (Persson et al. 2009). As shown in Fig. 2, selected articles were downloaded from the Scopus database on 22 November 2022. Article searching was carried out by using a Boolean search operator that includes {[TITLE-ABS-KEY(climate change) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (salinity) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY(vulnerability) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY(adaptation) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY(Indonesia) AND PUBYEAR < 2022] AND [LIMIT-TO (English)]}.
Retrieval process carried out in this study (Amicarelli et al. 2022; Widianingsih et al. 2021).
Citation: Weather, Climate, and Society 16, 1; 10.1175/WCAS-D-23-0025.1
Based on the articles’ sources, 466 publications were identified by these criteria (stage 1), and then any publications that were classified as conference papers, books, and book series were excluded; 232 were discovered after exclusion based on title, abstract, and full-text filtering (stage 2). After this step, with a total of 39 publications remaining in the sample, a bibliometric analysis was performed with VOSviewer and R-package software. Bibliographic information includes the year of publication, affiliations, foreign authors (and others), journals, keywords, and citations.
3. Results
a. Overview of publication characteristics
The first article in the sample was published in 1991. Hence, the timeframe for the literature review is between 1991 and 2022. Using only publications in English, all documents found were used to understand more broadly everything happening with climate change and salinity drivers in Indonesian agriculture. Initial analysis suggests a limited number of publications beginning in 1991 until an increase began in 2007. The number of articles from 1991 to 2006 was only one or two (at most three) per year.
The number of publications in 2010 started with 14 publications, increasing after 2015 and peaking in 2021 with 103 publications. The increasing trend of climate change publications was sparked by the 2015 Paris Agreement, a significant milestone in global efforts to address climate change (Blau 2017). In this regard, Indonesia has committed to reducing emissions by 29% below current levels by 2030 (Siagian et al. 2017). Several proposals were filed that were based on research findings concerning greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and carbon dioxide emissions after 2015 (Hasegawa et al. 2016; Siagian et al. 2017). Hasegawa et al. (2016) offered carbon mitigation options for Indonesia. Supposing the latest Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) targets are met, 58% of the total reduction should come from agriculture, forestry, and other land-use sectors through forest preservation, afforestation, and plantation activities. Siagian et al. (2017) proposed energy efficiency measures and the implementation of a less carbon-intensive energy system, with an emission reduction target of 15.5% and a carbon reduction target of 27%. Tacconi stressed the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) idea and its inclusion in the UNFCCC negotiations for a climate agreement, as well as the relevance of forest management in achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement. Emission reductions promised in NDCs can be met unconditionally or conditionally through REDD+ with external support from other countries or a combination of both.
The issue of drought trends is covered in Scopus publications from 2011 to 2021. The 2015 drought in Indonesia was at least 37% (highest estimate: 100%) more likely to be caused by anthropogenic impacts (Fig. 3). Drought in the agricultural sector based on research in Java, Bali, and Nusa Tenggara is claimed to be one of the biggest contributors to the disruption of the country’s economy. Maximum severity increases with increasing altitude, and precipitation will decrease toward the end of the current century.
Annual number of publications from 1991 to 2022.
Citation: Weather, Climate, and Society 16, 1; 10.1175/WCAS-D-23-0025.1
b. Primary analyses of different journals
The number of articles published in certain journals or sources indicates the scientific weight of that publication for a particular topic or research field. Figure 4 shows the top 10 publication sources in terms of articles published. The Institute of Physics (IOP) Conference Series (120) is the most popular source on climate change or salinity in Indonesian agriculture, followed by Environmental Research Letters (10), Sustainability (Switzerland) (10), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (7), Biodiversity (6), Journal of Physics: Conference Series (6), Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Environmental Sciences (5), Land Use Policy (5), AIP Conference Proceedings (4), and Global Change Biology (4).
The most popular journals/sources.
Citation: Weather, Climate, and Society 16, 1; 10.1175/WCAS-D-23-0025.1
c. Primary analyses of different countries/territories
From 1991 to 2022, articles about climate change–induced salinity impacts on (Indonesian) agriculture (CCSIA) were published in 32 countries or territories. Figure 5 shows the corresponding author’s countries and some of the collaborative works conducted among researchers. Indonesia produces the largest number of publications (318, or 68.24%). The top four countries that also published CCSIA articles include the United States (54, or 11.58%), Germany (44, or 9.44%), Japan (43, or 9.22%), and the United Kingdom (36, or 7.72%). These findings indicate that researchers from other countries have also paid great attention to researching CCSIA in Indonesia in the last few decades. Figure 5 also shows the relationship between article citations and countries. There are six clusters where Indonesia, with the most articles, collaborates with articles cited by authors from Japan, Thailand, and Brazil, which were only conducted in 2019 (yellow). The red cluster is the citation of articles between German authors and Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, and France, carried out in 2015. In the blue cluster, the United States and Australia are two clusters that have carried out academic collaboration or article citations in 2014. Moreover, South Africa and Sweden are a cluster that has collaborated on article citations with Indonesia starting in 2017. Besides Indonesia, the United States is the most active country in conducting international citations (107 times), followed by England (95 times), Germany (85 times), Australia (84 times), the Netherlands (52 times), Japan (44 times), and France (36 times).
The collaboration network of the 32 representative countries.
Citation: Weather, Climate, and Society 16, 1; 10.1175/WCAS-D-23-0025.1
d. Analyses of subject categories
Overall, CCSIA research on Scopus covers more than 24 subject areas, of which the top 14 can be seen in Table 1. The most frequently examined category was “environmental science,” which was reported by 29.61% of articles and occupied a high position on the researchers’ agenda during the entire study period. The “Earth and planetary sciences” category comes in second with 20.17% and 176 notes. “Agricultural and biological sciences” ranked third (11.58%), followed by “social sciences” (8.79%), “energy” (4.29%), and “engineering” (4.29%).
Subject area in CCSIA-related articles.
e. The most frequently cited articles
One of the first articles to receive a positive response in international publications was about salinity in Aceh, Indonesia. When the tsunami hit in 2004, agricultural production in Aceh declined as a result of 37 500 ha of coastal land being affected by salinity. This salinity condition is likely due to damage or loss of drainage system due to the tsunami, which forced farmers to deal with the salinity in their fields (Irakoze et al. 2022). Therefore, the availability of appropriate irrigation systems and infrastructure is very important for handling the problem of soil salinity (Singh 2018, 2019).
Several studies on CCSIA have been published in the Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Environmental Sciences (Table 2). Indonesia, the Philippines, Bangladesh, and India started the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) research project in 2009 to generate salt-resistant varieties through a more efficient biotechnology approach that can increase yields by 0.5–2 t ha−1 (Alpuerto et al. 2009). Saline-resistant types have been introduced in several locations, such as the Inpari 41 variety in climate field school (CFS) Rawaapu and Dendang in Jogjakarta (Nasrudin and Fahmi 2022; Simarmata et al. 2021). Setiawati et al. (2018) has conducted research that produced biological fertilizers from 18 bacterial isolates derived from the roots, stems, and leaves of the Ciherang variety rice plants to stimulate the growth of rice plants in saline soils. Suripin et al. (2017) examined a permeable breakwater in Demak Regency, Central Java, to protect environmentally friendly beaches in muddy beach areas. In addressing the problems of climate change and salinity, during 2010–20, Simarmata et al. (2021) assessed soil health restoration practices [inovasi intensifikasi padi aerob terkendali berbasis organik (organic-based controlled aerobic rice intensification innovation) (IPATBO)] to increase rice production while empowering farming communities (CFS). This practice reduces inorganics (25%–50%) and water (30%–40%) and increases rice productivity by at least 25%–50%.
The 10 most frequently cited articles on the theme of salinity.
f. Analysis of co-occurrences for “climate change” or “salinity” and “vulnerability”
Drought is the biggest concern among climate change impacts in Indonesia, as suggested by the red cluster in Fig. 6 (Murniati and Mutolib 2020; Rahayu et al. 2022). Drought is caused, among other things, by a continuous increase in greenhouse gases, which changes rain patterns, temperature, and has a negative impact on water and land resources (Amadou et al. 2022; Twidyawati et al. 2021). In Jogyakarta, 41 704 ha of agricultural land are vulnerable to climate change–induced drought, 128 154 are vulnerable to natural disasters, and the estimated loss is more than IDR 207 billion (Suryanto et al. 2020). However, rainfall in Java has decreased relative to the beginning of the last century, especially during the long dry season (Siswanto and Supari 2015). The rainy season varies geographically, with some locations receiving less yearly rainfall (Raza et al. 2019). The changing seasonal rainfall indicates a corresponding decrease in monthly flow for Java’s major rivers, which is anticipated to be between +0.8% and −8.3% in 2030 and between +1.3% and −13.8% in 2050 (Pawitan 2010).
The output of the term co-occurrence analysis for “climate change” or “salinity” and “vulnerability.”
Citation: Weather, Climate, and Society 16, 1; 10.1175/WCAS-D-23-0025.1
The Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Indonesia reports that sea levels rise is expanding the coastal areas of rice production affected by seawater intrusion and runoff. The increasingly inundated condition of the northern coastal plains is one prominent example (Sarah and Soebowo 2018). In some areas in West Java, brackish water and seawater have infiltrated land by about 8 and 6 km, respectively. The impact of seawater intrusion into the land will be more pronounced during the dry season when many rice plants begin to dry up, resulting in increased crop failure. Several studies state that soil salinity in coastal areas of Indonesia ranges from 2 to 18 dS m−1 in the dry season. Research conducted in the Mahakam River delta, East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Tanaka et al. 2011), reported that the prolonged decline in rainfall in this region has led to seawater intrusion into groundwater wells in the area. Climate change impact will become a more severe threat if not adequately addressed (Pawitan 2018). This condition will cause food production vulnerability that can threaten food security, primarily as a result of increasing population growth with higher food consumption (Rondhi et al. 2018).
g. Analysis of co-occurrences for “climate change” or “salinity” and “adaptation”
Farmers are aware of and respond to climate changes and uncertainties in the agricultural sector (Fig. 7). Publication on adaptation to drought, vulnerability, land use, and climate variability began in 2016. The Scientific Farm Shop is a form of transferring new knowledge to farmers regarding local climate issues and their impact on agriculture in general as a provision for them to adapt to climate variability and drought due to climate change (Filho et al. 2016; Linder and Campbell-Arvai 2021). Farmers have limited access to climate information and adaptation and mitigation strategies. Most farmers are unfamiliar with crop cultivation on saline and salt-impacted soils (Irawan 2021; Rahayu and Suwitra 2020; Sekaranom et al. 2021). Farmers are not equipped with sufficient knowledge yet; hence, most have low adaptive capacity with regard to climate change impacts.
The output of the term co-occurrence analysis for “climate change” or “salinity” and “adaptation.”
Citation: Weather, Climate, and Society 16, 1; 10.1175/WCAS-D-23-0025.1
Climate change adaptation literature for crops and food security began to be published in 2019. Lampung farmers’ adaptation tactics to address the effects of change include minimum tillage to prevent soil saturation and soil structure damage, weed removal intensification, early planting during the rainy season, careful spacing of plants, and more disciplined crop rotation (Murniati and Mutolib 2020). Farmers in the Sangiran area choose to sell assets, borrow money, reduce daily consumption, and change jobs (Budiman et al. 2020). Farmers in Jogjakarta demonstrate the potential functions of social capital in climate change adaptation (participation in financial programs, high levels of trust, community engagement, and personal relationships with people from distant villages) (Saptutyningsih et al. 2020). Meanwhile, farmers in Kebumen respond to climate change by diversifying crop cultivation, switching to other jobs, and taking capital loans for the next planting (Sekaranom et al. 2021). In Fig. 8 farmers are the yellow minor spot and the thinnest link in the yellow cluster. This description suggests that socioeconomic studies on farmers’ responses to climate change have yet to be elaborated in the Indonesian literature.
The output of the term co-occurrence analysis for “salinity” and “agricultural.”
Citation: Weather, Climate, and Society 16, 1; 10.1175/WCAS-D-23-0025.1
h. Analysis of co-occurrences for “salinity” and “agricultural”
Farmers identified salinity as a constraint on their main crop production (rice) as indicated by the red cluster (Fig. 8). Salinity causes a decrease in soil health, poor water availability, poor plant growth, and relatively low yields (Dewi et al. 2022). In some areas, paddy fields, especially along the coast, are largely degraded; as many as 50% have been affected by salinity, causing significant yield losses (Simarmata et al. 2021). Water management is one of the topics studied on the Barito River to assess farmers’ needs for fresh or irrigation water in meeting the water needs of their saline land (Multazam et al. 2022). Several adaptive rice varieties are also used to cultivate rice on saline land (Nasrudin and Kurniasih 2021; Purwanto and Salsabila 2019; Susanto et al. 2020). Technology applications to address Indonesia’s salinity problems began to appear in the literature in early 2020. A study using the vegetation index and NDVI has been carried out to determine which rice fields are affected by saline (Tivianton et al. 2021). In the green cluster, the studies relate to fertilizers, crops, salinity levels, salinity levels, salinity treatment, plants, rice, and sodium chloride (Anshori et al. 2021; Gaydon et al. 2012; Murtadha et al. 2017). This reflects the fact that the studies examine several aspects related to saline soils, including distance to irrigation canals, distance to coastlines, and types of land use.
Meanwhile, fertilization on saline soils has a particular pattern of producing optimal production (Yan et al. 2021; Zakiyah et al. 2021). According to Siswanti and Umah (2021), salinity treatment by applying biological fertilizers to Amaranthus tricolor L. nourishes plants under stress, increases plant height and the number of leaves with a dose of 20 L ha−1, and increases the chlorophyll content in conditions of salinity stress with a dose of 10 L ha−1.
Salt stress was identified in agricultural land in Aceh Province after the 2004 tsunami, which submerged most of the agricultural land (Arabia et al. 2012; Karolinoerita and Annisa 2020). Arabia et al. (2012) identified the characteristics of saline soil in the Krueng Raya Settlement through pH, electrical conductivity, and high sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) through three pedons (invasive plants) selected based on the differences in vegetation growing on it (mangroves, nipa palm, and halophytic shrubs). Characteristics of saline soils were identified between the level of electrical conductivity (EC) in the soil of more than 4 dS m−1, which characteristic is commonly found in type-A tidal swamp areas and in lowland paddy fields along the coast of Java Island (Hairmansis and Nafisah 2020). These conditions affect rice growth and yield (Ran et al. 2022). The last cluster (yellow) addresses strategic adaptation, remote sensing, and cropping patterns as components of adaptation strategies (Utomo and Pieter 2022; Zakiyah et al. 2021).
4. Discussion
a. The impact of climate change on agriculture
Climate change significantly impacts agricultural production (Dam et al. 2019a; Estiningtyas et al. 2021; Mendelsohn 2014; Tobin et al. 2017). El Niño–Southern Oscillation significantly affects Indonesian farm households, which leads to a decline in agricultural outputs (Binternagel et al. 2010). Farmers have limited resources and are highly dependent on rainfall on their farms (Srinivasa Rao et al. 2016). Several areas affected by drought-related conditions, such as south Sulawesi, experience yield losses ranging from 0% to 60% (Devianto et al. 2017). Meanwhile, in areas unaffected by drought, such as cocoa-production regions, the decline range was relatively lower, ranging from 3% to 8%. According to Gateau-Rey et al. (2018), Bali has experienced a decline in production of ∼20% over the last 20 years because of climate change. Sumatra has experienced a decline in food crop production, including high-lowland rice, upland rice, corn, and soybeans (Ruminta and Handoko 2016). Approximately 47.2% of farmers in Lampung experienced a decrease in yield, and around 40%–50% experienced crop failure (Murniati and Mutolib 2020). East Java recorded a drought covering 69.13% of the agricultural areas in 2017/18, decreasing about 30% of crop yields (Venkatappa et al. 2021). Moreover, drought in Central Java affected 82 324 ha of rice fields in 2015 (Prima Ari Pratiwi et al. 2020).
Seawater intrusion as a result of decreased rainfall that pollutes wells/rivers for water consumption and agricultural irrigation also occurs in the coastal area of Bangladesh (Alfarrah and Walraevens 2018); the Niger River delta, Nigeria (Ayolabi et al. 2013); and the coast of Florida (Jasechko et al. 2020). A significant decrease in rainfall can lead to an increase in soil salinity, which harms agriculture. This condition happens because rainwater, which helps to remove dissolved salts from the root zone, is reduced (FAO 2007). The potential for an increase in soil salinity due to decreased rainfall, accompanied by an increase in air temperature, increases the evaporation rate of groundwater. At the same time, the salt remains in the soil (Sundha et al. 2020).
Seawater that enters the soil can increase the salt concentration in the soil and groundwater, causing salinization, which ultimately reduces agricultural productivity (IPCC 2014). Seawater entering the soil can increase the salt concentration in the soil and groundwater, causing salinization and ultimately reducing agricultural productivity (IPCC 2014). Increases in salinity leading to reduced yields have been reported in California and Arizona in the United States (Medellín-Azuara et al. 2014), in Vietnam’s Mekong River delta, and in the Nile River delta, Egypt (Aziz et al. 2019).
The results of the literature study clearly show developed conceptual framework that climate change has caused temperature variability, changes in seasonal rainfall, widespread drought, and increased soil salinity, affecting agricultural production. Climate change has negatively influenced agriculture, as seen by a decline in production that increases farmers’ vulnerability.
b. Farmers’ efforts to adapt to climate change
Given Indonesia’s current and projected climate change, agricultural adaptation is necessary to minimize current and future farmer vulnerability and food insecurity. Considering the significance of agriculture to food security, economies, and rural livelihoods, farmers’ adaptation to climate change is critical. In terms of decreasing climate change vulnerability, the available literature shows that farmers in Indonesia use a wide range of different adaptation strategies, such as using saline-tolerant crop varieties, postponing or advancing planting time, switching to new crops/plants, water harvesting using storage ponds, using water-efficient irrigation techniques and equipment, crop rotation, crop diversification, and income diversification (Budiman et al. 2020; Murniati and Mutolib 2020; Saptutyningsih et al. 2020; Sekaranom et al. 2021). These adaptation measures usually reduce exposure to climate change-related natural hazards and their severity. Therefore, farmers applying climate change adaptation measures are likelier to be less vulnerable and have a more secure livelihood than those not adopting any adaptation practices. Adaptation practices vary from one agroecosystem to another, but a constant remains: adaptation strategies address a wide range of changes in farmer behavior and the surrounding communities and institutions. They may consist of fundamental changes in natural resource management systems as well as more subtle and less visible alignments to conventional agricultural practices, such as multiple cropping, mixed cropping, and intercropping. Action is therefore required on two levels to enable adaptation strategies to lessen the effects of climate change. Policy makers must create and implement positive action programs and policies, and farmers must make informed decisions, for example, choosing appropriate crops, crop varieties, planting time, and cropping systems.
It is unfortunate that the literature on Indonesian farmers’ adaptation to salinity is very limited. However, in general, farmers’ farming adaptation and nonfarming adaptation measures confirm the climate change conceptual framework’s recognition that the choice of adaptation measures depends on farmers’ adaptive capacity. Farmers may change their main crop or adjust their cropping pattern or even change to other nonfarm jobs, not only because they have different adaptive capacities, but also different resource availability. As suggested in the conceptual framework, all means of adaptation are directed at reducing farmers’ vulnerability.
c. Salinity in Indonesia agriculture
As a country with the third longest coastline, Indonesia is highly vulnerable to the trend of rising sea levels, warmer sea temperatures, and significant increases in wave height due to climate change. (Zikra et al. 2015). Moreover, the other extreme climate change phenomena that have always threatened Indonesia are floods and droughts. In the rainy season, abnormally high tidal events often occur in coastal areas, whereas, in the dry season, seawater intrusion increases salinity in Indonesian coastal areas (Zikra et al. 2015). Figure 9 shows an example snapshot of recent salinity conditions in the waters surrounding Indonesia. Research conducted in Pekalongan shows that seawater intrusion has reached 800 m from the shoreline with a depth of 13 m. This condition makes it difficult for the community to meet their domestic clean water needs. In coastal Sumbawa, the highest TDS concentrations, conductivity, and salinity are respectively 5770 ppm, 8700 μS cm−1, and 4600 ppm at S8, and the lowest are 836 ppm, 1258 μS cm−1, and 700 ppm at S26, respectively.
Map of Indonesia and salinity conditions in July 2023.
Citation: Weather, Climate, and Society 16, 1; 10.1175/WCAS-D-23-0025.1
Salinity causes more and more low-income or small-scale farmers to lose their livelihoods as farmers. Because salt has rendered farming unprofitable for many farmers, they have shifted to off-farm employment (Dewi et al. 2022). Salinity conditions have had an impact on the social life of Indonesian farmers. Disruption of livelihoods and decreased income of farmers indirectly contribute to malnutrition and health problems, especially among vulnerable populations such as children and pregnant women (Dewi et al. 2022). Farmers in coastal areas are more vulnerable and have limited income diversification to combat salinity caused by climate change. Salinity not only threatens to reduce crop yields, cause crop failure, and decrease farmers’ income, but also nationally it can lead to food insecurity.
The magnitude of the salinity potential threats posed by salinity to Indonesian farmers’ livelihoods and national food security needs serious attention. However, note that research on the technical and socioeconomic impacts of salinity on farmers’ livelihoods and the environment still needs to be well documented in national and international scientific literature.
d. Farming practice to anticipate climate change triggering salinity
Both farmers and their food crops (rice) are very vulnerable to salinity due to climate change. The fact that most farmers in coastal areas are smallholders with less than 0.5 ha of land holding and rice as the main crop adds to the risk that they will be affected by salinity (Central Bureau of Statistics Indonesia 2021a; Nasrudin and Kurniasih 2021; Oelviani et al. 2022). Some practices documented in the literature for the Indonesian rice farmers to deal with salinity problems are as follows: 1) controlling the entry of saltwater into agricultural land, 2) reclaiming or rehabilitating land that has been affected by salinity, and 3) applying location-specific cultivation technology innovations in saline-affected land (Rachman et al. 2018).
Preventing saltwater from entering rice fields through runoff in ditches, canals, and rivers, which are heavily affected by tidal movement, should be a top priority to overcome salinity problems (Khang et al. 2008; Rachman et al. 2018). This saltwater ingress control technique can effectively prevent larger land areas from being affected by salinity. This innovation is known to be very expensive, especially when compared with the acquisition of agricultural products in the short term. In the long term, however, this innovation has succeeded in protecting the agricultural ecosystem in coastal areas (El-Agha et al. 2011).
Reclamation/rehabilitation of soil affected by salinity can be carried out in various ways, including by washing dissolved salts left in the soil using irrigation and drainage using freshwater/irrigated water/rainwater, improving cation exchange capacity by adding some soil amendments (gypsum, lime, humic acid, etc.) and improving soil physical fertility by adding enrichment materials, such as organic matter, rice husk charcoal/biochar, or soil ameliorants (Munns and Tester 2008; Rachman et al. 2018). Combining the application of biochar and compost with natural plants (Suaeda torreyana, Kochia scoparia, and Sonchus oleraceus) can significantly improve saline soil rehabilitation effectively and inexpensively (Chávez-García and Siebe 2019). A study conducted in India found that applying manure, municipal compost, and gypsum proved to be most effective in reducing soil alkalinity (Sundha et al. 2020).
Location-specific cultivation technology innovations that can be carried out on saline soils, among others, are using salinity-resistant/tolerant varieties, increasing soil physical fertility by applying organic fertilizers, making nurseries on nonsaline soils, and planting old seedlings (Rachman et al. 2018). Using resistant or tolerant varieties is more recommended and effective to restore and increase land productivity and maintain rice-production sustainability on land affected by salinity (Ganapati et al. 2022; Kumar Arora et al. 2020). Various attempts have been made to increase the tolerance of rice plants either through conventional breeding or with the help of technology such as molecular markers and genetic engineering. Knowledge about the mechanism of tolerance of rice plants to salinity stress is growing rapidly to support breeding programs for salinity-tolerant varieties. Several varieties of salinity-tolerant rice, such as Dendang, Lalan, Banyuasin Margasari, Inpari 34 Salin Agritan, and Inpari 35 Salin Agritan, have been released in Indonesia and have the potential to be adopted by farmers on land affected by salinity (Hairmansis and Nafisah 2020). Although various innovations implemented in other countries also have promise for adaptation, the Indonesian government is currently promoting the use of saline-tolerant varieties.
e. Salinity-tolerant rice varieties
Research conducted in various countries, including Indonesia, has shown that using rice varieties that are tolerant to salinity can increase yields in comparison with intolerant varieties. The increase in rice yields achieved by salinity-tolerant varieties is often related to the plant’s ability to manage salt levels in plant tissues. Salinity-tolerant varieties can maintain higher growth and productivity by reducing excess salt accumulation. Rice varieties that are tolerant to salinity have higher grain production and maintain better yield quality than intolerant varieties. Zeng et al. (2001) reported that one of the factors causing higher rice productivity was that rice varieties with a higher tolerance to salinity could produce larger grain weights than intolerant varieties (Zeng et al. 2001). At high soil salinity (2660 dS m−1) in Indramayu, West Java, Indonesia, yields of Inpari 34 and Inpari 35 with the recommended practices achieved 93% higher yields than smallholder practices (Subekti et al. 2020). Based on the results of other studies, rice varieties tolerant to salinity can produce higher yields, more tillers, and better plant growth relative to varieties that are intolerant to salinity. However, salinity tolerance is a genetic and physiological trait. Salinity-tolerant rice varieties have better vegetative growth and root development under saline conditions, so they can increase water and nutrient efficiency, increasing crop yields (Ismail and Horie 2017).
The Dendang variety is the first saline-tolerant variety released by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1999, while the Lambur variety (2001) is reserved for tidal and somewhat saline-tolerant swamps (Rumanti et al. 2018). Furthermore, varieties for iron- and aluminum-tolerant tidal swamps include Banyuasin, Batanghari, Indragiri, Punggur, Margasari, Siak Raya, Tenggulang, Mendawak, Inpari 34, Inpari 35, Bio Salin, and Unsoed 79 varieties (Lestari et al. 2020).
The Ministry of Agriculture has conducted saline tolerance tests in various regions in Indonesia (Rahayu et al. 2022; Rumanti et al. 2018; Subekti et al. 2020). In 2019, four saline-resistant varieties, including Inpari Unsoed 79 Agritan, Inpari 34, Banyuasin, and Ciherang, were planted with commercial biofertilizer treatment containing active microorganisms in Petarukan District, Pemalang, Central Java. Inpari Unsoed 79 Agritan and Ciherang outperformed Inpari 34 and Banyuasin in terms of yield performance. In West Java, the Inpari 34 and Inpari 35 varieties outperformed the Inpari 30 and Sidenuk in tests by 40% (Subekti et al. 2020).
The extent to which farmers have adopted those salinity-tolerant varieties must be better documented. Some farmers have not been able to adopt these varieties because there is still a lack of farmer awareness and knowledge of the existence and benefits of salinity-tolerant rice varieties, limited access of farmers to these varieties, and financial constraints (Dam et al. 2021; Sembiring et al. 2008).
f. Improvement of irrigation management and infrastructure
Irrigation is an important issue for farmers on saline-impacted lands. Some water sources contained salt levels that impacted rice production and quality. Agricultural land near the coast experiences a shortage of freshwater due to seawater intrusion, which hampers the sustainability of water sources for irrigation (Misnawati et al. 2021). Misnawati et al.’s study at seven sites in Indonesia resulted in significant positive temperatures and evapotranspiration of plants under historical scenarios, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. It is projected to increase water demand in the next few years (Misnawati et al. 2021). A survey in Aceh indicated that in response to salinity and climate variability, 81% of nonadaptive farmers chose to convert their land to pasture. At the same time, the adaptive group preferred to improve irrigation systems (Dewi et al. 2022).
Good irrigation facilities and management could be one of the solutions for farmers to reduce the negative impacts of salinity on their paddy fields (Dewi et al. 2022). However, existing irrigation facilities are often not properly maintained, so they become shallow as a result of large amounts of soil sediment and even overgrown with wild plants, which causes irrigation not to function optimally. Meanwhile, many irrigation infrastructures with extensive networks are old, so their efficiency for irrigating paddy fields could be higher. The condition of the old irrigation system also results in water loss due to damage to the lining of the canals, which causes high levels of sedimentation and water leakage and facilitates the occurrence of illegal water tapping. In addition, the frequent occurrence of social conflicts between farmers stemming from dissatisfaction with the allocation of time, duration, and amount of water, as well as the obligation to pay for irrigation, will affect the operation and maintenance of irrigation. The low concern of farmers for the performance and maintenance of irrigation needs to be raised by encouraging a higher level of participation in the irrigation management process. It is necessary to strengthen institutions that are formed in a participatory manner to manage irrigation systems urgently needed to reduce the negative impacts of salinity.
g. Salinity cases in other countries
In Uzbekistan, two major rivers supply water to almost 80% of irrigated land. Climate change reduces water flow, which increases soil salinity and has a detrimental impact on soil structure, the nitrogen cycle, and agricultural yield. Soil salinity has harmed more than one-half of Uzbekistan’s irrigated farmland. In this instance, authorities should devise effective strategies to address variations in salinity levels aggravated by emerging climate change and aggressively encourage local actors to frequently monitor soil characteristics and use resources (e.g., irrigation water) more sustainably.
Bangladesh’s coastal belt is extremely vulnerable due to the high density of soil and water salinity caused by climate change. It accounts for 20% of the country, with around 53% affected by varying degrees of salinity. The community of this area indicates that the destruction of crop production due to salinity intrusion is a major cause of poor health and welfare status. Rice farmers (42%) perceive a reduction in yield, followed by less income (30%) under saline conditions. They use different adaptation measures, such as saline-tolerant crop variety and rainwater harvesting techniques, to reduce the effect of salinity intrusion. As climate change proceeds, the Bangladesh government is developing location-specific coastal adaptation plans (Dasgupta et al. 2015).
Climate projections indicate that by 2030 sea level rise due to climate change will strike Vietnam’s Hau River and coastal inland areas at depths of less than 50–60 km. In these impacted areas, agricultural production, especially rice, and aquaculture, is greatly affected by the complex dynamics of salt intrusion. Several possible measures have been proposed, including appropriate land-use planning; appropriate changes in agricultural practices, especially in the selection of plants and crops that can tolerate different salinity limits; application of advanced cultivation techniques such as water conservation, alternating wet and dry conditions, and improved salt tolerance; and robust structures for salinity protection and freshwater extraction in areas where freshwater is scarce (Thi Nhung et al. 2019; Vu et al. 2018).
The Ayeyarwaddy delta accounts for 26% of Myanmar’s total rice-growing area and is known as the rice bowl of Myanmar. Because of sea level increase, seawater intrusion increases the salinity of the soil, and some of the rice-planted areas that are no longer suitable for rice production are converted to salt farms, greatly limiting nonsaline arable land. Therefore, policy instruments are proposed to implement soil protection and integrated farming systems in lowland rice systems that are effectively rain fed (SeinnSeinn et al. 2015).
Coastal regions of the world are facing salinity problems, often due to rising mean sea levels, resulting in saltwater transport and salt runoff into continental regions, affecting soil and water resources. Sea level rise and accompanying seawater intrusion contribute significantly to soil salinity in China’s coastal locations (Li et al. 2014), in Taiwan (Chen et al. 2015), and in Senegal (Re et al. 2011). Salinity threatens soil and water resource availability, food security, human health, and ecosystems. There is an urgent need to find solutions to address this problem, to reclaim saline soils in the long term, and to curb further salinization in the future. There are many ways to recultivate saline soils, depending on the soil’s nature and degree of salinity. The most effective soil amendment for saline soils is gypsum (Wang et al. 2017). Biochar, a carbonized organic residue, has also been found to improve the general health of saline soils (Sun et al. 2017). Moreover, halophytes can withstand salt stress through osmoregulation and cation/anion balance maintenance, so they can be planted to cope with excess salinity (Ye et al. 2019). Salinity-tolerant mangroves, for example, play a vital role in preserving and rebuilding coastal ecosystems from flooding, salinization, and erosion (Zhu et al. 2019).
As the conceptual framework implies, to reduce the influence of salinity, different adaptation measures can be applied because salinity caused by climate change can be triggered by different drivers, such as sea level rise, seawater intrusion, or reduced river flow. Therefore, in Indonesia the government must prepare adaptation and mitigation plans based on specific locations and impacts as climate change continues.
h. Challenge in reducing the negative impacts of salinity due to climate change
Since most farmers depend on the productivity of their land, salinity has affected the vulnerability of Indonesian agriculture and the welfare of farmers. Meanwhile, Food Law 18 of 2012 requires the state to maintain agricultural production so that every individual in Indonesia can have enough food to live a healthy and productive life. With a growth rate of 1.5% per year, Indonesia’s population is estimated to grow from 273 million in 2020 to 480 million in 2050 (Central Bureau of Statistics Indonesia 2021b). Therefore, sustainable agricultural development is a big challenge considering that the agricultural sector is the largest contributor to GDP at 16.4% (Adam and Hermawan 2011; Oelviani et al. 2022).
The Ministry of Agriculture has recommended some climate change adaptation measures, including adjustments to planting time, the use of superior varieties resistant to salinity, and the development of water management technologies (Surmaini et al. 2015). Since 2007 the Ministry of Agriculture has developed a planting calendar (Katam) program to mitigate climate change impacts, which is supported by suggestions on planting dates/times, varieties, site-specific fertilization, and information on drought conditions, flooding, and endemic pest areas (Runtunuwu et al. 2012). However, along the way, several obstacles to this program were encountered, including 1) the lack of accuracy in estimating the beginning of planting time because of variability and climate change, which are increasingly difficult to predict; 2) the high demand for information technology innovation, which is increasingly complex, because of decreased productivity and production slowdown; and 3) reduced rice field area due to conversion and fragmentation of agricultural land (Runtunuwu et al. 2012).
The saline-resistant varieties produced have partially followed the wishes/requests of farmers and have been socialized at the farmer level. Technical obstacles in generating these varieties include the difficulty for breeders in obtaining salinity-tolerant varieties in the productive phase because the salinity levels in farmers’ fields are very diverse and difficult to predict (Hairmansis and Nafisah 2020). The limited availability of these superior varieties is still limiting farmers’ access (Rumanti et al. 2018). Other obstacles include farmers’ expectations of these saline-tolerant varieties to have the same yield as the existing non-saline-tolerant varieties, a lack of interest on the part of the seed industry in producing seeds of saline-tolerant varieties and limited seed sources for commercial seed propagation (Masganti et al. 2022).
Some varieties have been introduced and planted in several regions in of Indonesia. However, it has not had a real impact because there is no alignment between central and regional programs (Sumedi et al. 2020). Meanwhile, local government involvement and “ownership” factors are highly desirable for a program that is well sustainable (Witono and Siregar 2008). Selecting varieties resistant to salinity is the farmers’ hope in rice cultivation; however, the seed’s limited number and availability still need to be improved for widespread farmers’ adoption (Hairmansis and Nafisah 2020). In this case, government support in setting seed policy is urgently needed (van Gastel et al. 2002; Sudjindro 2016).
Water management is one of the solutions to cope with land inundated with saline water. In Egypt, irrigation as a solution to the problem of salinity is part of government policy with consideration of the advantages and benefits for small farmers (Kotb et al. 2000). In Kazakhstan, irrigation has reclaimed 31 000 ha of land to become productive agricultural land. Dam construction in China’s Loess Plateau can reclaim land, absorb carbon, and increase regional carbon stocks (Saltanat et al. 2015). Improvement and development of irrigation infrastructure are crucial for Indonesia since there are still many water limitations and shortages in several agricultural areas (Hadi Darwanto 1999). Public–private cooperation is needed to accelerate improving and development of irrigation infrastructures in Indonesia (Idris 2021). Despite the crucial need for irrigation facilities and management improvements to reduce the impacts of salinity (Karolinoerita and Annisa 2020; Yan et al. 2021), research and studies in this area still need to be done as indicated by the limited scientific documentation and literature.
5. Conclusions, implications, and limitations
We have assessed adaptation to salinity in Indonesian agriculture by providing a retrospective and comprehensive overview of climate change literature published in the Scopus-indexed literature database over the past 30 years, from 1991 to 2020; 39 articles on climate change, vulnerability, and adaptation in Indonesian agriculture are analyzed. However, to achieve effective adaptation to saline soils in Indonesia, the number of publications on the impact of salinity caused by climate change and its adaptation measures on primary food production (rice) still needs to be increased.
Bibliometric analysis suggests that publications in articles (49.8%) and conference papers (36.3%) are written by Indonesians more often than scholars of any other nationality. The number of publications by foreign writers is significant. The United States, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom are the top countries writing on CCSIA themes. According to the analysis of citations, authors from the United States, Australia, and the Netherlands are the most frequently cited authors in Indonesia’s studies of climate change or salinity. The topics of biofuels, carbon, and climate change have received much attention in scientific journals, whereas articles on salinity are considerably fewer.
Co-occurrence analysis on the keyword salinity suggests that salinity has impacted agricultural land, especially in the coastal zones, water quality, and drought. With more than 81 000 km of coastline, Indonesia is very vulnerable to salinity-inducing climate change. Salinity has become a threat to agricultural production and farmers’ livelihoods. Proposed adaptation measures, namely, salinity-tolerant rice varieties, have not been widely adopted because of technical and socioeconomic constraints confronted by farmers.
The practical implication of this study is that it will benefit Indonesian researchers, academicians, policy makers, and local agricultural officers to realize the problems of climate change–induced salinity in agriculture and start to collaborate on building long-term strategies to minimize its impact on farmers’ livelihood vulnerability. Meanwhile, the research implication of this study is the identification of several important research themes that need greater attention and are crucial to follow-up in seeking solutions for the problems of climate change–induced salinity.
There currently needs to be more information and statistical data on climate and hydro-geological changes in the coastal regions, especially related to climate change–induced salinity intrusion. This study can form the basis for future research using a multisectoral approach to minimize the risk of salinity impacts on agriculture. Future research could include further studies on adaptation measures (from technological, management, socioeconomic, and institutional perspectives) to provide a viable starting point for developing long-term strategies related to coping with salinity intrusion due to climate change. In addition to existing salt-tolerant types, multistress-tolerant cultivars are needed to anticipate climate and weather uncertainties caused by climate change. Further research on integrated water resource management is urgently needed to maintain the availability and reduce the contamination stress of freshwater in coastal areas. Future research to generate new interventions for coastal farmers should consider upstream-to-downstream cost–benefit perspectives for a comprehensive risk assessment. The research program should consider issues related to strengthening grassroots/local organizations and gender roles in the early stages of research planning to ensure the new intervention’s sustainability.
In the last few years, there has been reasonable progress in the volume of scholarly publications on climate change–induced salinity research in Indonesia. However, more is needed to analyze all of the themes identified in this paper. In the context of Indonesia, research publications are still very limited on themes like “impacts of salinity on rice production,” “impacts of salinity on farmers’ livelihood vulnerability,” and “farmers’ adaptation measures to salinity problems.” These topics are central to achieving adaptation and maintaining farmers’ livelihoods and Indonesia’s national food security.
Acknowledgments.
The authors thank all those who helped in the completion of this paper. This research was funded by the Research Organization for Governance, Economy, and Public Welfare of the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) of Indonesia.
Data availability statement.
All data have been included in this paper.
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