1. Introduction
Although the physics of the sea-breeze circulation is well understood (Haurwitz 1947; Miller et al. 2003; Frisinger 1972; Watts 1955), finer scale features resulting from the interaction of land topography, coastal and offshore water column temperatures, and overlying synoptic weather are poorly modeled (Colle et al. 2016; Nunalee and Basu 2014) and inadequately sampled (Debnath et al. 2021). Focusing on the New York Bight (NYB), a region now experiencing the rapid development of offshore wind energy (U.S. Department of the Interior 2022; BOEM 2022), this study aims to construct and analyze the characteristics of the NYB sea-breeze circulation and related low-level jet (LLJ). The goal of this study is to objectively identify sea-breeze days and their associated LLJs along the south shore of Long Island and adjacent coastal waters. This objective identification scheme furthers our understanding of antecedent thermodynamic conditions necessary to initiate and maintain the sea-breeze circulation and its relationship with the LLJ. The NYB is defined here as the coastal and offshore region south of Long Island and east of New Jersey (NJ), extending south to Cape May, NJ, and east to Montauk, New York (NY) (the eastern most end of Long Island; Fig. 1; Gunnerson 1981).
Existing networks in the NYB region. New York State Mesonet sites (NYSM; green), Automated Surface Observation Systems (ASOS; orange), National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) offshore buoys (blue), and New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) deployed offshore lidar buoys (red). Enhanced (featuring lidar and radiometer system) NYSM sites are shown with a red outline. The white shaded offshore regions represent the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management lease areas for offshore wind farm development (BOEM 2022). Larger symbols show sites that are used in the developed sea-breeze classification.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Observations of the sea-breeze circulation date back to the ancient Greeks. Aristotle, writing in 340 BCE, referenced the sea breeze in his study of the wind (Aristotle’s Meteorologica as reprinted in Lee 1952; Miller et al. 2003; Frisinger 1972). While modern-day identification of the sea breeze can be location dependent, in the higher latitudes it is generally seen as a warm season phenomenon that occurs near the coast and can modify the structure of the lower atmosphere (e.g., the formation of internal boundary layers), affecting weather on spatially local and diurnal time scales (Khan et al. 2018). As daytime temperatures rise over land and remain cool over the water, the cooler offshore air begins to flow toward the coast, resulting in low-level convergence at the coastline and development of a sea-breeze front. The sea-breeze front represents a temperature and moisture discontinuity; there is an increase in wind speeds and changing wind direction following its passage (Watts 1955; Khan et al. 2018; Azorin-Molina et al. 2011b).
The coastlines bordering the NYB, with the Long Island and NJ shores oriented east–west and north–south, present a set of challenges when considering the dynamics of the sea-breeze circulation (Fig. 1). The New York City (NYC) metropolitan area also introduces a complex urban–coastal environment of extreme variability of landscape and temperature due to buildings, infrastructure, and impervious surfaces (Meir et al. 2013).
Coastal LLJs, a low-level wind speed maximum found parallel to coastlines within the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), occur in different coastal regions worldwide (Colle and Novak 2010). These LLJs are well documented along the West Coast of the United States (Beardsley et al. 1987; Burk and Thompson 1996; Parish 2000). The NYB LLJ (Fig. 2), defined here as showing a wind speed maximum between 150 and 300 m MSL, however, has not been extensively studied.
Wind profiles (m s−1; 1 full barb = 5 m s−1) using lidar data from New York State Mesonet (NYSM) and New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) sites on 27 Jun 2021 averaged over a 3-h period from 2100 to 2359 UTC. Black lines at 40 and 260 m indicate the location of the rotor plane of an offshore wind turbine. Map in the top-right corner depicts the location of each site as well as the approximate location of the NYB LLJ (shaded in red).
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Previous studies have found the NYB LLJ to be a warm season phenomenon, maximizing in the late spring and summer months (Colle and Novak 2010; Aird et al. 2022). Hugging the northern NJ coastline as it propagates to the north, the LLJ crosses the Long Island south shore over Queens and Nassau counties (Fig. 2; Colle and Novak 2010; Freedman et al. 2010). In the NYB region, the LLJ appears to be associated with southwesterly synoptic flow with some correlation to the land–sea temperature gradient (Colle and Novak 2010; Debnath et al. 2021; Aird et al. 2022; Xia et al. 2022). Development of baroclinicity in the coastal zone (as the cool moist air mass over the ocean converges with the warm dry air mass at the coast) may be related to LLJ development (Wagner et al. 2019; Aird et al. 2022).
Another regional phenomenon associated with the NYB sea breeze and LLJ is coastal upwelling, which is observed during the warm season along the NJ and Long Island coastlines (Seroka et al. 2018; Pullen et al. 2007). The offshore subsurface water profile in the NYB changes seasonally (Seroka et al. 2018). During the spring, the waters are still well mixed and cooler from the winter; in the summer, the ocean becomes stratified and sea surface temperatures (SSTs) can exceed 26°C with much colder water (∼15°C) just 10–20 m below (Seroka et al. 2018). Sea breezes are thus common and typically more intense during the spring, because land surfaces begin to heat while the ocean waters are still cold, resulting in a larger thermal gradient. In the summer months, however, when surface waters are warm, cold water upwelling along the coast can result in development of an internal boundary layer, (Pullen et al. 2007; Seroka et al. 2018) and strengthen the sea breeze due to the increased temperature gradient between land and ocean (Dvorak et al. 2013). Thus, a detailed climatology and accurate prediction of the sea breeze and LLJ is critical not only for aviation and maritime interests, but also for offshore wind resource assessment, power production forecasts, and operation and maintenance of turbines and related infrastructure.
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 outlines the data used in the analysis. Section 3 discusses the developed classification to identify sea-breeze days and accompanying LLJs. The results of this sea-breeze detection methodology are described in section 4, along with a composite analysis comparing identified sea-breeze days to fair-weather non-sea-breeze days. Section 5 covers key phenomenon that are discussed throughout the study and finally, section 6 summarizes the findings and conclusions of our work. Note that our analysis is presented in UTC time, which is 4 h ahead of local time (EDT) in this region during the warm season (April–October).
2. Data
a. Automated surface observation systems (ASOS)
Long-term data used in this study are from ASOS station observations using the National Centers for Environmental Information’s Integrated Surface Database (“ISD-Lite”; NCEI 2021b; Smith et al. 2011; and Fig. 1). ASOS stations provide the only long-term high frequency (e.g., 5 min and hourly; NOAA 1998; NCEI 2021a) land-based meteorological observations; note that the wind measurement height at ASOS stations (and NYSM sites) are, consistent with World Meteorological Organization (WMO 2018), at 10 m above ground level (AGL; see Table 1).
Summary of all observational data used in this study.
b. The New York State Mesonet (NYSM)
In 2014, the University at Albany, State University of New York, designed and began installation of the NYSM (Brotzge et al. 2020). The 126 standard (surface) sites observe and archive 5-min measurements of air temperature, wind speed and direction, relative humidity, incoming solar radiation, precipitation, air pressure, soil temperature and moisture, and snow depth (Brotzge et al. 2020). A subnetwork of 17 profiler sites includes Leosphere WindCube Doppler lidars (Vaisala, Inc.) measuring the u, υ, and w wind components up to 7000 m AGL. Each profiler site also features a microwave radiometer (Radiometrics, Inc), which measures vertical profiles of air temperature, relative humidity, vapor density, and liquid water up to 10 000 m AGL (Table 1; Brotzge et al. 2020).
The Wantagh NYSM site is located along the south shore of Long Island, about 6 km from the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 1). It is also positioned near where the NYB LLJ typically comes onshore (Fig. 2; Colle and Novak 2010; McCabe 2021). Lidar vertical wind profiles facilitate detection of the NYB LLJ, and Wantagh’s location is ideal for identifying the sea-breeze circulation and properties such as sea-breeze onset, strength, and duration.
c. New York state energy research and development authority (NYSERDA) buoys
One historical complication with understanding the extent of the sea-breeze circulation is the lack of offshore profiling data in the NYB. In support of offshore wind development, in particular within the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Wind Energy Areas, NYSERDA deployed two buoys with lidar systems (EOLOS FLS200) in the late summer of 2019, shown in Fig. 1 as Hudson North and Hudson South. The lidar systems (DNV 2021) scan up to 200 m MSL; other met-ocean systems on the buoy measure surface wind, temperature, pressure, and current and water temperature below the sea surface.
d. National data buoy center (NDBC)
NDBC operates a national network of offshore buoys with several operational systems in the NYB. NDBC buoys provide long-term hourly (or higher frequency) measurements (Fig. 1; NCEI 2021c). Data from NDBC buoy 44065 is used for this study. Note that buoy 44065 wind measurements are made at 4.1 m MSL.
3. Methods
a. Local wind climatology
At coastal locations such as Wantagh and John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK), the late spring and summer months feature surface winds out of the south-southwest, as influenced by mesoscale wind systems such as the sea breeze (compared to the more directionally distributed winds that are seen year-round; Figs. 3a–f; Dvorak et al. 2013). In a midlatitude coastal region such as New York, the sea breeze is more common during the warm season (Colle and Novak 2010; Hughes and Veron 2018; Seroka et al. 2018). At farther inland sites, such as the Bronx, the winds are generally more variable in the spring and summer, as the sea breeze has less impact (Figs. 3c,f).
The 3-yr composite wind roses of 10-m winds measured at three sites: (a) NYSM site Wantagh, NY; (b) ASOS station JFK; and (c) NYSM site Bronx, NY. The 3-yr warm season (May, June, July, August) composite wind roses are shown at the same sites: (d) NYSM site Wantagh, NY; (e) ASOS station JFK; and (f) NYSM site Bronx, NY. The radial labels indicate the frequency (%) at which the wind blows from that direction.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
The location and terrain of Wantagh and JFK are similar; both sites are situated 5–6 km due north of the coastline. Wantagh is separated from the ocean by the Great South Bay whereas JFK is separated by Jamaica Bay. JFK has low surface roughness as it is located at an airport. Wantagh has surrounding low-lying vegetation and buildings to the south, so the site generally has more blockage (especially in the southerly winds) which is reflected in the wind rose at the 10-m level (Figs. 3a,d). The gust factors [for the NYSM, defined as the ratio of the maximum 3-s wind speed from the sonic anemometer to the mean wind speed over a 5-min interval; for ASOS, defined as the ratio of the maximum 5-s wind speed over the mean wind speed for a 10-min interval (NOAA 1998)] at each site are also indicative of the differences in surface roughness. JFK has a lower gust factor, 1.21, as compared to Wantagh’s value of 1.63 calculated over the 3-yr period (2018–20). The Bronx is the most urban of the three sites, and its high surface roughness is implied by a gust factor of 1.82.
In the NYB, several meteorological factors affect the evolution and seasonal frequency of the sea-breeze circulation. Identifying the different local and synoptic conditions related to the sea-breeze circulation and LLJ is an important classification criterion. Similar to Mavrakou et al. (2012), in this study, sea-breeze days will be classified into two categories, classic and hybrid.
Classic sea breeze—days are dominated by surface high pressure systems with a regionally minimal pressure gradient. Typically, warm (with an established land surface–SST temperature differential), sunny quiescent days, with light prevailing winds in the morning, and a sea-breeze circulation developing in the afternoon.
Hybrid sea breeze—all conditions that classify a sea-breeze day are met; but these days often are accompanied by larger-scale forcing features (e.g., prefrontal troughs that may initiate thunderstorm development to the west). The sea-breeze circulation appears in combination with other background synoptic activity.
b. Sea-breeze classification
Using data referenced in section 2 and summarized in Table 1 above, we created a methodology to objectively identify sea-breeze days in the coastal region of the NYB (specifically focusing on the south shore of Long Island). The following methodology is similar to those developed by Borne et al. (1998), Watts (1955), Khan et al. (2018), Steele et al. (2015), Mavrakou et al. (2012), Azorin-Molina et al. (2011a,b), and Prtenjak and Grisogono (2007), however, is the first observationally based classification to be developed for this region. Sea-breeze days are identified for the years 2010–20 (10 years total, excluding 2014 due to a significant amount of missing data at buoy 44065). The classification is separated into two procedures, 2010–17 (using long-term historical ASOS) and 2018–20 (when NYSM data are available).
Each data interval over the defined period is filtered through the classification scheme (Fig. 4a), described as follows:
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Time constraint. Sea-breeze onset in this region is generally in the early afternoon and the circulation can persist until after sunset, so the temporal window is confined between 1700 and 0000 UTC. Therefore, the following filters (2–6) are only applied to the hours during which a sea breeze is expected to occur if a sea breeze is present.
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Precipitation. Any NYSM 10-min observation reporting precipitation during the identification window is excluded, with the assumption that the sea-breeze circulation is, at least temporarily, disturbed by rain events (Azorin-Molina et al. 2011b). This does not exclude events that may be associated with a sea-breeze-triggered rain event. For example, such as is common in Florida where the sea breeze occurs on both sides of the peninsula, low-level convergence of the sea breeze can cause showers or thunderstorms along the coastline (Nicholls et al. 1991; Byers and Rodebush 1948).
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Pressure gradient. The observed pressure on land must be less than the pressure offshore. Considering the potential inland extent of the sea-breeze circulation we use a more inland station—Somers in Putnam County, located 105 km north of buoy 44065 to calculate the pressure gradient (Fig. 1).
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Wind speed and direction. Due to the east–west orientation of Long Island, an onshore breeze will develop out of the south. Southerly winds will, over time, deflect somewhat due to the Coriolis force. Although the sea-breeze circulation occurs on a short enough time scale to limit the Coriolis force from greatly affecting the wind direction, initial south to south-southeast winds can deviate slightly. The variations in wind direction due to the sea breeze are the result of local pressure gradients, such as those caused by diurnal changes in heating (Simpson 1996). Assuming some directional variability, the wind direction is constrained to be between 160° and 210°. Because of the locally higher surface roughness (due to vegetation and building blockage) at the Wantagh NYSM site (Brotzge et al. 2020), the lowest available range gate from the lidar is used, 100-m AGL (69% data recovery), in lieu of the surface wind observations. JFK 10-m wind speeds are supplemented when the 100-m winds at Wantagh are insufficient. Through multiple renditions of this filter, a wind speed of 6 m s−1 provides the most accurate results and is determined to be the minimum threshold for the sea-breeze circulation in the NYB (the mean 100-m wind speed at Wantagh during the summer is 6.2 m s−1).
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Temperature gradient. The temperature difference between the land and the ocean directly influences the pressure gradient that exists perpendicular to the coastline, helping to generate the sea breeze (Berri and Dezzutti 2020). Regardless of location, all previous studies to identify sea-breeze days require an air–sea temperature difference (Watts 1955; Borne et al. 1998; Khan et al. 2018; Xia et al. 2022; Azorin-Molina et al. 2011b). Therefore, the air temperature at the inland site (Somers) must be greater than the coastal site (Wantagh), which must be greater than the offshore SST (44065).
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Dewpoint depression (difference between the air and dewpoint temperatures). Sea-breeze days generally exhibit a predictable dewpoint depression trend. Prior to sea-breeze onset, the dewpoint depression grows as the air temperature increases due to daytime heating while the dewpoint stays constant or decreases slightly. When the sea-breeze front begins to propagate onshore, the air temperature cools as the dewpoint increases (attributable to moisture advection or convergence in the developing internal boundary layer) and they begin to converge (Fig. 5; Angell and Pack 1965; Viner et al. 2021). This filter eliminates days when the synoptic-scale air mass is quite humid and the inland temperature does not increase enough during the afternoon for a sea breeze to be initiated. Conservatively estimating that half of all days are not candidates for sea-breeze events, a minimum dewpoint depression threshold of 3.5°C is found by taking 50% of the mean afternoon (1700–0000 UTC) dewpoint depression at Wantagh over the 3-yr period.
Methodology used to identify sea-breeze days. If input data meet all filters, they can be considered as a candidate for a sea-breeze day. The classification scheme considers (a) for 2018–20, Wantagh as the land-based coastal site, Somers as the inland site, and buoy 44065 as the offshore site; (b) for 2010–17, JFK as the land-based coastal site, HPN as the inland site, and buoy 44065 as an offshore site.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Composite of air temperature (°C; solid line) and dewpoint (°C; dashed line) on 81 sea-breeze days from 2018, 2019, and 2020. Blue lines are measurements from Wantagh, NY, a coastal site with evidence of the sea breeze, and orange lines are the measurements from Somers, NY, an inland site that does not experience effects from the sea breeze.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
If, in any 10-min interval, all six filters are met, the entire day is considered as a candidate for a sea-breeze day (Fig. 4a). Note that, as long as all criteria are met, the order of the conditions does not affect the results. However, some non-sea-breeze days still make it through the filtering process. While this methodology considers the pressure gradient between land and ocean, it does not take into account the synoptic-scale forcing that may mimic sea-breeze-like conditions. Thus, the (local) diurnal pressure change is examined. Here, to filter out atmospheric pressure tides, we use the diurnal pressure changes as a constraint. Atmospheric pressure tides are often referred to as two types of gravity waves, diurnal (S1) and semidiurnal (S2; Dai and Wang 1999). These gravity waves are known to result in changes to pressure, temperature, and wind speed, all of which can be observed as a result of the sea-breeze circulation (Dai and Wang 1999). Cook (2012) found that local circulations such as the sea breeze influence the phase of S1, causing pressure to be 90° out of phase with air temperature and wind speed. Applying this relationship to the pressure composites generated from sea-breeze days at Wantagh, the surface pressure should reach a minimum in the late afternoon (∼2100–2200 UTC; see Fig. 6 and further discussion below and Fig. 13d).
Pressure composite (mb; 1 mb = 1 hPa) of sea-breeze days identified in 2020 at Wantagh, NY. The red dashed line shows all candidate sea-breeze days, and the blue solid line shows the composite of sea-breeze days remaining after the secondary pressure filter.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
The secondary filtering processes eliminate days dominated by synoptic forcing by removing those with a diurnal pressure variation outside the typical pressure perturbation expected on sea-breeze days (Azorin-Molina et al. 2011b; Prtenjak and Grisogono 2007). The average diurnal pressure change on candidate sea-breeze days is calculated (using the station pressure at Wantagh) over four time periods based on typical pressure tides described in Cook (2012), 0900–1200 UTC (ΔPavg > 0), 1200–1500 UTC (ΔPavg = 0), 1500–1800 UTC (ΔPavg = −1.031), and 1500–2100 UTC (ΔPavg = −2.074). The station pressure reaches a maximum between 1200 and 1500 UTC, so the pressure change over that time interval is approximately zero (Fig. 6). A multiplier of 1.5 allows for some variability, while eliminating days clearly dominated by synoptic forcing. The criteria used are
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from 0900 to 1200 UTC: ΔP > 0 (pressure is increasing);
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from 1200 to 1500 UTC: ΔP ≈ 0;
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from 1500 to 1800 UTC: 0 > ΔP ≥ 1.5 × −1.031;
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from 1500 to 2100 UTC: 0 > ΔP ≥ 1.5 × −2.074.
Prior to 2018 (before complete deployment of the NYSM) ASOS stations with a long-term historical record are used. JFK (about 30 km west of Wantagh) is selected as the coastal site and Westchester County Airport (HPN) as the inland site, located 48 km to the north (Fig. 1). Although JFK and HPN are closer in distance than Wantagh and Somers, both provide a nearly north–south transect when comparing an inland based site to a coastal location. The methodology used to determine sea-breeze days during this period is similar, with the first six filters modified slightly (see Fig. 4b and preceding discussion).
Using ISD-Lite data (1-h temporal resolution), each 1-h data interval from 2010 to 2017 is passed through the classification filter. Similar to the methodology summarized above (Fig. 4), if at any hour all criteria are met, that day is classified as a sea-breeze day (Fig. 4b). The secondary filtering process is performed the same way, using the average diurnal pressure change at JFK to filter out days with larger 3–6-h pressure variations. For consistency in the analysis, the methodology designed for the years prior to 2018 was run for the years 2018–20. The methodology described in Fig. 4b captured 74% of the classic and hybrid sea-breeze events identified in the methodology shown in Fig. 4a.
Filtering all data through the classification schemes (using JFK as the land-based coastal site for 2010–17 and Wantagh as the land-based coastal site for 2018–20) provides a final list of sea-breeze days for the 10 years (2010–13, 2015–20), totaling 381 days (Fig. A1). However, because of the difficulty in filtering out multiscale forcing, the classification schemes still misidentified some sea-breeze events. After manually sorting through the 381 days and removing misidentified sea-breeze events (“missed” days), a total of 322 days remain, for an average of 32 sea-breeze days annually (approximately 1/3 of all days in June, July, and August). These missed days include periods dominated by a frontal passage and typically involve strong southerly synoptically forced flow. However, after manually removing all non-sea-breeze events, the accuracy of the classification algorithm over the 10-yr period is still a robust 85%. A previous observational classification performed by Borne at al. (1998) was found to be only 75% accurate.
The remaining 322 properly identified sea-breeze days are broken down into two categories, classic and hybrid (defined earlier). Sea-breeze events were classified into these two categories by examining each case using daily time series of variables such as wind speed, direction, pressure, dewpoint depression, surface maps and satellite images (Azorin-Molina et al. 2011b; Mavrakou et al. 2012). Although this differentiation is subjective to manual observations of surface maps, as a general rule, afternoon fronts and convection are used to distinguish between classic and hybrid. (Examples of surface maps from each category are shown in Fig. A2.) The annual distributions of each sea-breeze type, classic, hybrid, and missed, are shown in Fig. 7a (and Fig. A1).
(a) Annual distributions of identified sea-breeze day types, including classic (green), hybrid (orange), and missed (red), over the 10-yr period from 2010 to 2020. The frequency is shown by the annual occurrence of each type of sea-breeze event. (b) The mean number of classic (green) and hybrid (orange) sea-breeze days that occur each month over the averaged 10-yr period from 2010 to 2020. The mean monthly occurrences of LLJs (blue) are averaged over a 3-yr period from 2018 to 2020.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
c. Low-level jet classification
A shear value of ±0.2 is chosen by analysis of the shear environment above and below the jet maximum on a subset of summertime LLJ events. This choice is confirmed by the International Electrotechnical Commission’s definition of average vertical shear (α) across a rotor plane to be 0.2 (IEC 2005). Note the typical α within the rotor plane in the offshore waters at NYSERDA buoy locations Hudson North and South is ∼0.09. From the confirmed set of sea-breeze days for the years 2018–20 (Fig. A1), LLJ events are identified using temporal and spatial constraints. Since the LLJ typically maximizes in the late afternoon to early evening hours (Colle and Novak 2010) as the sea-breeze circulation reaches its maximum, LLJ events are classified based on the wind profile between the hours of 2000 and 2359 UTC. The minimum wind speed threshold chosen to determine LLJ events is based on the mean 150 and 200-m wind speed on sea-breeze days; 7.0 and 7.4 m s−1, respectively. An LLJ is identified if at any 10-min data interval all of the following are true:
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wind speed at 150 and 200 m is greater than 7 m s−1;
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wind speed shear from 100 to 150 m: α ≥ 0.2;
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wind speed shear from 250 to 500 m: α ≤ −0.2.
Applying this methodology, a total of 66 LLJs are identified on sea-breeze days. Over the same 3-yr period (2018–20), 95 sea-breeze days are identified, indicating that more than two-thirds of all sea-breeze events (75% of classic and 60% of hybrid) are expected to have an associated LLJ.
Looking at the composite profile of NYB LLJ days from 2018 to 2020, all (except for one) have a wind speed maximum below 260 m, occurring within the rotor plane of a hypothetical 12 MW offshore wind turbine (e.g., GE Haliade turbine, 40–260 m MSL; Fig. 8; General Electric 2021). The consistent height of the jet maximum in Fig. 8 confirms the choice of levels used in conditions 2 and 3. The measurements within the rotor plane (100–250 m) show the NYB LLJ at Wantagh to feature large speed shear, α ranges from −0.36 to 0.60, and some directional shear (0°–34.8°, average 8°; Fig. 8).
Composite of profile wind speed (m s−1) and wind direction from 66 LLJs that occurred in 2018, 2019, and 2020 (1 full barb = 5 m s−1). Wind measurements are from the NYSM Wantagh lidar and averaged between 2100 and 2259 UTC.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
The offshore horizontal extent of the NYB LLJ, although not conclusively measured (because of the limited observation network), is evident from the data at the two NYSERDA buoys located at Hudson North and Hudson South (Fig. 2). Although the period of record for the NYSERDA buoys is shorter (beginning August/September 2019) than the onshore sites, ASOS and NYSM observations provide enough information to further analyze and provide dimensional context to the NYB sea-breeze circulation.
4. Results
The developed classification scheme is used to identify sea breeze and LLJ days in the region of the NYB. Although both classic and hybrid sea-breeze events peak in the late spring and summer months, May–August, sea breezes can occur during the cool season (Fig. 7b). Cool season sea-breeze events are most common on unseasonably warm days when a strong cross-shore temperature gradient is established, and synoptic forcing is weak. LLJs associated with sea-breeze days also peak in the late spring and summer months but can persist into the colder fall months.
Since one of the primary drivers of the sea-breeze circulation is the air temperature-SST gradient, it is important to consider local phenomena that affect the coastal–inland temperature gradient. While one possible factor is the effects of the NYC urban heat island in amplifying the high temperatures onshore (Meir et al. 2013; Bornstein 1968), coastal cold water upwelling that occurs along the NJ and Long Island coastlines can act to cool SSTs in the NYB (Seroka et al. 2018; Pullen et al. 2007).
Cold-water coastal upwelling also maximizes in the warm season, increasing the air–sea temperature gradient, and indicating a possible feedback relationship to the sea breeze and NYB LLJ. This upwelling is known to create a stronger, sharper, and narrower sea-breeze circulation (Seroka et al. 2018) and an increased land–SST gradient is found to be related to high shear LLJ events offshore (Debnath et al. 2021; Colle and Novak 2010).
a. Sea-breeze case studies
1) Case study—1 July 2019
An example of a classic sea-breeze day with an associated LLJ occurred on 1 July 2019 (Fig. 9). A clear day characterized by high pressure over the region, the morning hours feature light northerlies (Figs. 9a,b; Fig. A2a). Prior to sunrise (0927 UTC), the dewpoint depression, reflecting light winds and nocturnal cooling at Wantagh, is small (4.4°C). As the day progresses, a turbulent mixed layer grows and the dewpoint depression increases until the sea-breeze front reaches the coast (Fig. 9d).
Wantagh, NY, time series for the period from 1200 UTC 1 Jul to 0300 UTC 2 Jul 2019. Variables shown are (a) wind speed (m s−1; left y axis) at 100 m, and station pressure (mb; right y axis); (b) wind barbs (1 full barb = 5 m s−1) at 100 m, shown at 30-min intervals; (c) 2-m air temperature (°C; left y axis) and dewpoint (°C; right y axis) at Wantagh, NY, and offshore water temperature at NDBC buoy 44065 (°C; right y axis) and (d) dewpoint depression at Wantagh (°C). The black vertical line represents the approximate time of sea-breeze onset.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Sea-breeze onset at Wantagh occurs at approximately 2130 UTC, marked by a wind direction shift to the south and rapid wind speed increase at 100 m AGL (Figs. 9a,b). With the passage of the sea-breeze front the dewpoint increases as moist ocean air moves onshore and the air temperature rapidly cools (3.2°C in 1 h; Fig. 9c). By 0000 UTC, the sea breeze has reached its maximum and gradually begins to relax. The wind direction then shifts back to westerly.
The shallow depth of the sea-breeze circulation is evident from the time height cross section of temperature, wind speed, and direction at Wantagh (Fig. 10a). The south-southwesterly onshore breeze only extends up to ∼300 m AGL, above which the winds veer to more westerly. In the surface layer (lowest 100 m), the temperature cools rapidly with the passage of the sea-breeze front (Fig. 10a).
(a) Wantagh, NY, time–height cross sections for the period from 1200 UTC 1 Jul to 0300 UTC 2 Jul 2019 of temperature (contours; °C) and wind speed and direction (wind barbs; 1 full barb = 5 m s−1). The vertical scale extends from the surface to 1000 m. The black vertical line depicts the time of approximate sea-breeze onset at Wantagh. (b) Time series from offshore NDBC buoy 44065 for the period from 1200 UTC 1 Jul to 0300 UTC 2 Jul 2019. The 4.1-m wind speed (m s−1) and direction (1 full barb = 5 m s−1) at buoy 44065 is shown in blue. The black vertical line depicts the time of approximate sea-breeze onset offshore. (c) Average vertical wind speed (m s−1) profile between 2100 and 2259 UTC 1 Jul 2019 at Wantagh (green). Black horizonal lines (at 40 and 260 m) represent the rotor plane of an offshore wind turbine. Wind direction is shown at various levels, 1 full barb = 5 m s−1.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Sea-breeze onset at Wantagh is delayed as the morning northerlies initially suppress the sea-breeze (southerly flow) front moving onshore (Fig. 9). Offshore, onset of the sea-breeze circulation is observed earlier, just after 1800 UTC at buoy 44065. The wind direction shifts from the prevailing westerlies in the morning hours and remains out of the south-southwest for the duration of the sea breeze (Fig. 10b).
A weak LLJ is observed on 1 July 2019 at Wantagh with a jet maximum at 125 m AGL (Fig. 10c). The offshore profile is unknown as the NYSERDA lidar buoys are not deployed until August 2019 (DNV 2021).
2) Case study—22 July 2020
The 22 July 2020 event provides an example of a hybrid sea breeze. The morning hours are characterized by winds that are light and variable near the surface and out of the southeast aloft (Figs. 11a,b). The winds begin to shift to southerlies by 1500 UTC; however, the wind speed increase due to the sea breeze is not apparent until between 1800 and 1900 UTC.
As in Fig. 9, but for the period from 1200 UTC 22 Jul to 0300 UTC 23 Jul 2020. The black vertical line represents the approximate time of sea-breeze onset, and the red dashed arrow shows the passage of the thunderstorms.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Offshore, the morning and early afternoon hours are characterized by light and variable winds that begin to strengthen around noon and shift to the southwest (Fig. 12b). As the sea-breeze circulation reaches its maximum strength around 2100 UTC, the 100-m winds offshore in the NYB remain out of the southwest while the winds along coastal Long Island are more southerly (Figs. 11b and 12b).
(a) As in Fig. 10a, but for the period from 1200 UTC 22 Jul to 0300 UTC 23 Jul 2020. (b) As in Fig. 10b, but for 1200 UTC 22 Jul to 0300 UTC 23 Jul 2020 and also includes the 100-m wind speed (m s−1) at each NYSERDA deployed lidar buoy, Hudson South (red) and Hudson North (black). (c) As in Fig. 10c, but between 2100 and 2259 UTC 22 Jul 2020 and includes the vertical wind speed profiles (m s−1) at Hudson South (red) and Hudson North (black).
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Given that 22 July features SSTs that are higher than normal for a midsummer season sea-breeze event (reaching 27°C at buoy 44065, where the 10-yr average on 22 July is 24.2°C) and coastal temperatures at Wantagh reach 31°C, the air–sea temperature gradient is slightly reduced. The air temperature at Wantagh maximizes just prior to sea-breeze onset (∼1800 UTC), then gradually cools following passage of the sea-breeze front until rapid cooling occurs in response to the passage of a squall line (just before 0000 UTC at Wantagh; as in Fig. 11c). The squall line abruptly ends the sea-breeze circulation and classifies the day as a hybrid sea-breeze event (Fig. A2b). These storms later reach Hudson South at 0100 UTC and Hudson North at 0200 UTC (Fig. 12b).
This event also exhibits an associated LLJ (Fig. 12c). At Wantagh, the jet maximum is at 225 m (Fig. 12c). Assuming a similar height for the LLJ at the NYSERDA sites places the jet max above the 200-m vertical range of the NYSERDA lidars but still within the assumed rotor plane.
The vertical time–height cross section of the Wantagh radiometer observed air temperature again shows the surface layer warming after sunrise and continuing until the sea-breeze frontal passage cools the surface temperatures (approximately 2000 UTC; Fig. 12a). In this case, the magnitude of cooling is greatest in the lowest 100 m AGL, due to the shallowness of the sea-breeze circulation. The evening thunderstorm is visible at the end of the day resulting in abrupt changes in wind direction and temperature, with rapid cooling across the entire vertical profile (0–1000 m; Fig. 12a).
b. Sea-breeze/non-sea-breeze day composites
To better understand the met-ocean environment of the NYB sea breeze, we compare sea-breeze and non-sea-breeze days. The algorithm described in section 3 identified 95 sea total breeze days (63% classic and 37% hybrid) in 2018, 2019, and 2020. For comparison, 60 warm season fair-weather non-sea-breeze days featuring clear skies and no precipitation were selected from the same 3-yr period.
Compositing the sea-breeze days and selected fair-weather non-sea-breeze days, differences are apparent when contrasting the diurnal pattern of the wind speed and direction. On the sea-breeze days, a strengthening afternoon south wind is present at all three sites (buoy 44065, Wantagh, and JFK; see Figs. 13a–c). A south wind propagating onshore coastal Long Island is one of the key components to the sea-breeze circulation detection scheme. In contrast, the wind direction on the fair-weather non-sea-breeze days remains out of the northwest in the afternoon.
Composites over a 3-yr period from 2018 to 2020 on a subset of 81 sea-breeze days (SB; solid lines) and 60 fair-weather non-sea-breeze days (FW NSB; dashed lines). (top) Shown are composites of wind speed (m s−1) and direction (1 full barb = 5 m s−1) at (a) buoy 44065 (4.1-m measurements); (b) Wantagh, NY (100-m measurements); and (c) JFK (10-m measurements). (bottom) Shown are measurements from three sites EWR (green), JFK (orange), and Wantagh (blue) of (d) air temperature (°C), (e) dewpoint depression (°C), and (f) normalized pressure (mb).
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
The sea-breeze days at all three sites also feature light prevailing west winds present in the morning hours prior to sea-breeze onset (Figs. 13a–c). The prevailing winds during the summer months in this region are generally out of the southwest and west, and when light (e.g., relaxed pressure gradient), allow the sea-breeze circulation to dominate (Haurwitz 1947; Fig. 3). Another common characteristic observed in sea-breeze events is the surface wind speed reduction just prior to the sea-breeze onset. Wind speeds often decelerate to near calm, before shifting to the south and strengthening with the onshore flow (Figs. 13a–c). This pattern is evident in both cases previously discussed (1 July 2019 and 22 July 2020; Figs. 9 and 11). Gahmberg et al. (2010) identifies these calm zones ahead of the sea-breeze circulation to be a result of the convergence of the continental and marine air masses (typical under ambient offshore flow conditions).
The secondary filtering process described in section 3b considers the diurnal pressure variation observed on sea-breeze days. According to Cook (2012), during a sea-breeze event, the maximum wind speed should lag the maximum temperature by 1 h, the temperature should peak after noon, and the pressure should fall at the fastest rate when the surface temperature reaches its maximum. Results here confirm this, as the temperature peaks around 1800 UTC (Fig. 13d), the wind speed begins to reach a maximum at 2000 UTC (Figs. 13a–c), and the pressure falls at the fastest rate from 1500 to 2100 UTC (Fig. 13f). On fair-weather non-sea-breeze days, however, the composite normalized pressure continues to increase during the afternoon hours.
The effect of the sea breeze on surface temperatures is evident when compared with non-sea-breeze days. The coastal sites, Wantagh and JFK, reach their peak temperatures earlier in the day, between 1800 and 1900 UTC, and begin to cool earlier, faster, and remain cooler overnight (Fig. 13d). On fair-weather non-sea-breeze days, the temperature peaks later in the day [closer to 2000 UTC and following the trend of inland sites such as Newark International Airport (EWR)], cooling off more gradually with temperatures remaining higher than the coastal sites through the overnight hours (Fig. 13d).
Similarly, on sea-breeze days, the dewpoint increases in the afternoon as cool, moist ocean air moves across the coastline. However, on fair-weather non-sea-breeze days, the dewpoint continues to fall during the afternoon, as is typical under well-mixed land-based convective boundary layer conditions (Stull 1988). Where there is convergence of the air temperature and dewpoint in the afternoon hours during sea-breeze days, the dewpoint depression on fair-weather non-sea-breeze days continues to increase into the late afternoon/early evening (Fig. 13e). Generally, the dewpoint is expected to fall to its minimum during the afternoon hours due to convectively driven dry air entrainment, demonstrating why the early convergence between the air and dewpoint temperature on sea-breeze days is a key identification criterion (Haugland and Crawford 2005).
5. Discussion
a. Spatiotemporal extent of sea-breeze circulation
Composites of the time–height cross section of air temperature and wind speed at two NYSM stations, Wantagh and the Bronx, help clarify the vertical and temporal extent of the sea-breeze circulation near the coast (Fig. 14).
Composite plots of time–height cross sections of air temperature from 1200 to 0000 UTC (°C; from the radiometer). Height from 10 to 1500 m is shown in a log scale to emphasize variations near the surface. Composites of sea-breeze days are shown at (a) Wantagh and (b) the Bronx; and composites of fair-weather non-sea-breeze days at (d) Wantagh and (e) the Bronx (1 full barb = 5 m s−1). The difference between the air temperature at the Bronx and Wantagh is shown from 10 to 3000 m on (c) sea-breeze days and (f) fair-weather non-sea-breeze days.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Wantagh’s coastal location is cooled faster and more effectively by the sea-breeze circulation than the more inland and urban Bronx NYSM site. Comparing the temperature at Wantagh on sea-breeze and fair-weather non-sea-breeze days, the air temperature at Wantagh cools almost 2 h earlier (1900 UTC) than on the non-sea-breeze days (Figs. 14a,d). This same relationship is seen at the Bronx. Although warmer when compared with Wantagh on sea-breeze days, the Bronx cools slightly earlier and faster than on the fair-weather non-sea-breeze days (Figs. 14b,e).
The plots of the temperature difference between Wantagh and the Bronx on both sea-breeze and fair-weather non-sea-breeze days quantify the cooling effect that the sea-breeze circulation has on coastal sites (Figs. 14c,f). The Bronx is nearly 4°C warmer than Wantagh on sea-breeze days (Fig. 14c). On the fair-weather non-sea-breeze days, however, the temperature difference is about 1.5°C (Fig. 14f), indicating that heating and cooling of the region is much more uniform.
The differences between Wantagh and the Bronx are not as evident at higher levels. From the lidar observations, the sea-breeze circulation is shallow, measurable up to about 300 m AGL. Above that, the temperature is more uniform and prevailing synoptically driven winds become dominant at both sites (Fig. 14).
b. Forcing of NYB sea breeze and low-level jet
Understanding how and when an LLJ is associated with the NYB sea-breeze circulation has ramifications for offshore wind resource assessment, forecasting, and operations, and more general maritime and aviation interests (JFK is a major international airport where aircraft approaches are often adjusted as the sea breeze and wind shear can be a potential hazard to aviation; see NRC 1983).
To better understand the role of the land–sea temperature difference in the sea breeze, we compare the sea-breeze strength with the magnitude of the air–sea temperature difference (Fig. 15). The results show that a minimum temperature differential of 3.5°C between the Bronx and buoy 44065 is required for a sea-breeze circulation to occur (Fig. 15a). The likelihood of a stronger sea-breeze circulation increases with an increased air–sea temperature difference, especially for LLJ events (Fig. 15a). The 100-m wind speed increase associated with the sea-breeze circulation at Wantagh is also larger on sea-breeze days with an LLJ as compared those without (Fig. 15b).
(a) Scatterplot showing the relationship between the maximum 100-m wind speeds associated with the sea breeze at Wantagh (measured between the hours of 1700 and 2159 UTC) and the corresponding air–sea temperature difference (measured using the 2-m air temperature at the NYSM Bronx site and the water temperature at NDBC buoy 44065). (b) The maximum increase in 100-m wind speed and decrease in 2-m air temperature associated with the sea-breeze front at Wantagh (measured between the hours of 1500 and 2159 UTC).
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Given the importance of a temperature gradient to the strength of the circulation, we speculate that coastal upwelling can enhance the formation of an NYB LLJ by increasing the land–sea temperature gradient. Colle and Novak (2010) found the NYB LLJ, driven by differential heating, to be a result of a west-northwest–east-southeast pressure gradient that maximizes in the midafternoon, identified as a southerly flow 1–3 h later due to geostrophic adjustment. These results are again confirmed by Debnath et al. (2021), who identified that the strongest high shear events in the NYB occurred during stable stratification, when warm air (originating in the southwest) flows over cooler water in the mid-Atlantic region.
Although there are few previous studies on the NYB LLJ, the results here compare qualitatively well with previous studies. Colle and Novak (2010) used a wind speed threshold for an LLJ of 11 m s−1 as compared to the 7 m s−1 minimum used here. However, both studies find that the jet frequency peaks in the summer months, the jet height is below 300 m, and the jet reaches its maximum about 2 h after the peak pressure gradient is established (Colle and Novak 2010). Colle and Novak (2010) found the LLJ maximized at approximately 2300 UTC, but this study found the LLJ associated with the sea-breeze circulation to maximize earlier, closer to 2100 UTC. Although a higher wind speed threshold was chosen in their 2010 study to define an LLJ, they found that the maximum jet wind speed did not exceed 15 m s−1 (Colle and Novak 2010). This is consistent with the results of the LLJ events identified in this study. The composite shows a mean jet maximum around 10 m s−1, with most of the LLJs falling below 15 m s−1 (Fig. 8).
6. Findings and conclusions
We present a new method and first attempt using observational data to identify the sea-breeze circulation in the NYB. While this study is based on previous sea-breeze detections methodologies, it is the first to incorporate lidar data (Borne et al. 1998; Watts 1955; Khan et al. 2018; Steele et al. 2015; Mavrakou et al. 2012; Azorin-Molina et al. 2011a,b; Prtenjak and Grisogono 2007). A better understanding of the sea-breeze circulation and the frequent coincident presence of an LLJ is important for improving numerical weather prediction (e.g., aviation and maritime interests), resource assessment, and operational forecasting for the rapidly developing offshore wind energy industry. The developed classification scheme considers the primary driving forces of the sea-breeze circulation, such as pressure and temperature gradients that develop due to differential heating over land and ocean, and other factors such as precipitation, dewpoint depression, and wind speed and direction. The results of the classification show on average 32 sea-breeze days annually, with the highest frequency during the late spring and summer months.
This study differentiates between two types of sea-breeze circulations that occur in the NYB: classic (large-scale high pressure and a minimal pressure gradient, positive land–sea temperature gradient, sunny days, light prevailing morning winds and a sea-breeze circulation dominating in the afternoon) and hybrid (sea-breeze circulation with additional synoptic activity, such as stronger background pressure gradient, prefrontal activity/pre-trough, thunderstorms, etc.). Classic sea-breeze events were found to be more common than hybrid sea breezes in the NYB; however, both reach seasonal maximums during May, June, July, and August.
The NYB LLJ is often associated with the sea-breeze circulation, as its formation is again related to differential heating (Colle and Novak 2010). In this study, the NYB LLJ is defined as a wind speed maximum between 150 and 300 m MSL and is strongest at the coastal Wantagh NYSM site. Occurrences of the NYB LLJ associated with the sea-breeze circulation are generally limited to the late spring through fall months (April–November), whereas the sea breeze is a year-round phenomenon. Given the connection between the air–sea temperature gradient and the formation of an LLJ, the data shows that a sea breeze with an associated LLJ is unlikely to occur in the colder months unless an unusually strong temperature gradient develops.
The developed sea-breeze detection methodology can be considered a first attempt to observationally detect sea-breeze days along the south shore of Long Island. While it has been developed specifically for the NYB, the classification tool can be modified to use in other coastal regions worldwide. Although not a forecasting tool, it can easily be adapted, using real-time data, to function as a predictor tool for offshore wind energy, electric power demand, marine, and aviation forecasts. This methodology has been incorporated into the NYSM website to work in real time identifying sea-breeze days and LLJs at Wantagh (http://www.nysmesonet.org/networks/profiler#stid=prof_want). The surface data and profilers available in the NYB are invaluable in this complex urban-coastal environment and enable identification of the characteristics, including strength and frequency, of the NYB sea breeze and LLJ.
Acknowledgments.
This research was made possible through the funding of the Research Foundation for the State University of New York (SUNY), the Atmospheric Science Research Center (ASRC) Graduate Fellowship, and partially under NYSERDA Contract 1145615. In addition, this research is made possible by the New York State (NYS) Mesonet. Original funding for the NYS Mesonet was provided by Federal Emergency Management Agency Grant FEMA-4085-DR-NY, with the continued support of the NYS Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Services; the state of New York; the Research Foundation for the State University of New York (RFSUNY); the University at Albany, SUNY; the Atmospheric Sciences Research Center (ASRC) at SUNY Albany; and the Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences (DAES) at SUNY Albany.
Data availability statement.
NDBC buoy, ASOS, and ISD-Lite data are publicly available and can be downloaded from the NOAA NCEI (former NCDC) website as cited in NCEI (2021a,b,c). The NYSERDA deployed lidar buoy data are publicly available through DNV (2021) and can be found at https://oswbuoysny.resourcepanorama.dnvgl.com. New York State Mesonet (NYSM) data are not publicly available and are copyrighted by RFSUNY. Third party access can be granted for specified purposes. Further information about the data and conditions for access are available at http://www.nysmesonet.org/about/data and cited in Brotzge et al. (2020).
APPENDIX
Summary of All Identified Sea-Breeze Days
Figure A1 lists all of the days identified through the sea-breeze detection algorithm. These days are categorized into classic sea-breeze events, hybrid sea-breeze events, or neither (missed) using methods described in the text. Figure A2 shows an example of the surface maps used to classify sea-breeze event types. A surface map is shown for a classic sea-breeze case and a hybrid sea-breeze case.
List of all identified sea-breeze days (classic, hybrid, and missed) over the 10-yr period from 2010 to 2020.
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
Weather Prediction Center (WPC) surface map for two summer season sea-breeze cases. (a) A classic sea-breeze event, at 2100 UTC 1 Jul 2019 and (b) a hybrid sea-breeze event, at 2100 UTC 22 Jul 2020 (WPC 2021).
Citation: Weather and Forecasting 38, 4; 10.1175/WAF-D-22-0119.1
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