• Abbe, C., 1901: The physical basis of long-range weather forecasts. Mon. Wea. Rev., 29, 551561, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1901)29[551c:TPBOLW]2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Abdi, D. S., L. C. Wilcox, T. C. Warburton, and F. X. Giraldo, 2017: A GPU-accelerated continuous and discontinuous Galerkin non-hydrostatic atmospheric model. Int. J. High Perform. Comput. Appl., 33, 81109, https://doi.org/10.1177/1094342017694427.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Ackerman, A. S., M. P. Kirkpatrick, D. E. Stevens, and O. B. Toon, 2004: The impact of humidity above stratiform clouds on indirect aerosol climate forcing. Nature, 432, 10141017, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03174.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Adcroft, A., and J.-M. Campin, 2004: Rescaled height coordinates for accurate representation of free-surface flows in ocean circulation models. Ocean Modell., 7, 269284, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2003.09.003.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Adcroft, A., and R. Hallberg, 2006: On methods for solving the oceanic equations of motion in generalized vertical coordinates. Ocean Modell., 11, 224233, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2004.12.007.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Ambartsumian, V., 1936: The effect of absorption lines on the radiative equillibrium of the outer layers of stars. Publ. Astron. Obs. Univ. Leningrad, 6, 718.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • André, J., G. De Moor, P. Lacarrere, and R. Du Vachat, 1976: Turbulence approximation for inhomogeneous flows: Part II. The numerical simulation of a penetrative convection experiment. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 482491, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033<0482:TAFIFP>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Andrejczuk, M., W. Grabowski, J. Reisner, and A. Gadian, 2010: Cloud–aerosol interactions for boundary layer stratocumulus in the Lagrangian cloud model. J. Geophys. Res., 115, D22214, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014248.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Anthes, R. A., 1977: A cumulus parameterization scheme utilizing a one-dimensional cloud model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 270286, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1977)105<0270:ACPSUA>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Anthes, R. A., 1984: Enhancement of convective precipitation by mesoscale variations in vegetative covering in semiarid regions. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 23, 541554, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1984)023<0541:EOCPBM>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., 1966: Computational design for long-term numerical integration of the equations of fluid motion: Two-dimensional incompressible flow. Part I. J. Comput. Phys., 1, 119143, https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9991(66)90015-5.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., 1969: Parameterization of cumulus convection. Proc. WMO/IUGG Symp. on Numerical Weather Prediction, Tokyo, Japan, Japan Meteorological Agency, Vol. IV, 1–6.

  • Arakawa, A., 1972: Design of the UCLA general circulation model. Vol. 7, Department of Meteorology, University of California, Los Angeles, 116 pp.

  • Arakawa, A., 2000: A personal perspective on the early years of general circulation modeling. General Circulation Model Development, D. A. Randall, Ed., Academic Press, 1–65.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., 2004: The cumulus parameterization problem: Past, present, and future. J. Climate, 17, 24932525, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<2493:RATCPP>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., and W. H. Schubert, 1974: Interaction of a cumulus cloud ensemble with the large-scale environment, Part I. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 674701, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031<0674:IOACCE>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., and V. R. Lamb, 1977: Computational design of the basic dynamical processes of the UCLA general circulation model. General Circulation Models of the Atmosphere, J. Chang, Ed., Methods in Computational Physics, Vol. 17, Academic Press, 173–265.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., and V. R. Lamb, 1981: A potential enstrophy and energy conserving scheme for the shallow water equations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 1836, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1981)109<0018:APEAEC>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., and S. Moorthi, 1988: Baroclinic instability in vertically discrete systems. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 16881708, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1988)045<1688:BIIVDS>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., and C. S. Konor, 2009: Unification of the anelastic and quasi-hydrostatic systems of equations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 710726, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008MWR2520.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., and C.-M. Wu, 2013: A unified representation of deep moist convection in numerical modeling of the atmosphere. Part I. J. Atmos. Sci., 70, 19771992, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-12-0330.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arakawa, A., Y. Mintz, and A. Katayama, 1968: Numerical Simulation of the General Circulation of the Atmosphere. Department of Meteorology, University of California, 40 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arora, V. K., and G. J. Boer, 2005: A parameterization of leaf phenology for the terrestrial ecosystem component of climate models. Global Change Biol., 11, 3959, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2004.00890.x.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Arora, V. K., and Coauthors, 2013: Carbon–concentration and carbon–climate feedbacks in CMIP5 earth system models. J. Climate, 26, 52895314, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00494.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Ashford, O. M., 1985: Prophet–or Professor?: The Life and Work of Lewis Fry Richardson. Taylor & Francis, 320 pp.

  • Avissar, R., and R. A. Pielke, 1989: A parameterization of heterogeneous land surfaces for atmospheric numerical models and its impact on regional meteorology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 21132136, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1989)117<2113:APOHLS>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bacon, D. P., and Coauthors, 2000: A dynamically adapting weather and dispersion model: The Operational Multiscale Environment Model with Grid Adaptivity (OMEGA). Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 20442076, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2000)128<2044:ADAWAD>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Baer, F., 1972: An alternate scale representation of atmospheric energy spectra. J. Atmos. Sci., 29, 649664, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1972)029<0649:AASROA>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Baker, I., L. Prihodko, A. Denning, M. Goulden, S. Miller, and H. Da Rocha, 2008: Seasonal drought stress in the Amazon: Reconciling models and observations. J. Geophys. Res., 113, G00B01, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JG000644.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Balaji, V., R. Benson, B. Wyman, and I. Held, 2016: Coarse-grained component concurrency in earth system modeling: Parallelizing atmospheric radiative transfer in the GFDL AM3 model using the flexible modeling system coupling framework. Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 3605, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-3605-2016.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Baldocchi, D. D., 2003: Assessing the eddy covariance technique for evaluating carbon dioxide exchange rates of ecosystems: Past, present and future. Global Change Biol., 9, 479492, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00629.x.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Baldocchi, D. D., and Coauthors, 2001: FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 82, 24152434, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(2001)082<2415:FANTTS>2.3.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Ball, J. T., 1988: An analysis of stomatal conductance. Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 89 pp.

  • Balmaseda, M. A., K. Mogensen, and A. T. Weaver, 2013: Evaluation of the ECMWF Ocean Reanalysis System ORAS4. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 139, 11321161, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2063.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Barker, H. W., 1996: A parameterization for computing grid-averaged solar fluxes for inhomogeneous marine boundary layer clouds. 1. Methodology and homogeneous biases. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 22892303, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1996)053<2289:APFCGA>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Barker, H. W., and Coauthors, 2003: Assessing 1D atmospheric solar radiative transfer models: Interpretation and handling of unresolved clouds. J. Climate, 16, 26762699, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<2676:ADASRT>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Barker, H. W., J. N. S. Cole, J.-J. Morcrette, R. Pincus, P. Raeisaenen, K. von Salzen, and P. A. Vaillancourt, 2008: The Monte Carlo Independent Column Approximation: An assessment using several global atmospheric models. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 134, 14631478, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.303.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Barkstrom, B. R., 1984: The Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE). Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 65, 11701185, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1984)065<1170:TERBE>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bates, J., F. Semazzi, R. Higgins, and S. R. Barros, 1990: Integration of the shallow water equations on the sphere using a vector semi-Lagrangian scheme with a multigrid solver. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 16151627, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<1615:IOTSWE>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bauer, W., M. Baumann, L. Scheck, A. Gassmann, V. Heuveline, and S. C. Jones, 2014: Simulation of tropical-cyclone-like vortices in shallow-water icon-hex using goal-oriented r-adaptivity. Theor. Comput. Fluid Dyn., 28, 107128, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00162-013-0303-4.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bauer, P., A. Thorpe, and G. Brunet, 2015: The quiet revolution of numerical weather prediction. Nature, 525, 4755, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14956.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Beckwith, I. E., and D. M. Bushnell, 1968: Detailed description and results of a method for computing mean and fluctuating quantities in turbulent boundary layers. NASA Tech Note NCAR/TN-D-4815, 119 pp., https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19680026599.pdf.

  • Beljaars, A. C., P. Viterbo, M. J. Miller, and A. K. Betts, 1996: The anomalous rainfall over the United States during July 1993: Sensitivity to land surface parameterization and soil moisture anomalies. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 362383, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1996)124<0362:TAROTU>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bengtsson, L., M. Kanamitsu, P. Kållberg, and S. Uppala, 1982: FGGE research activities at ECMWF. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 63, 277303, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-63.3.277.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Benjamin, S. G., G. A. Grell, J. M. Brown, T. G. Smirnova, and R. Bleck, 2004: Mesoscale weather prediction with the RUC hybrid isentropic–terrain-following coordinate model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 132, 473494, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2004)132<0473:MWPWTR>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Benjamin, S. G., J. M. Brown, G. Brunet, P. Lynch, K. Saito, and T. W. Schlatter, 2019: 100 years of progress in forecasting and NWP applications. A Century of Progress in Atmospheric and Related Sciences: Celebrating the American Meteorological Society Centennial, Meteor. Monogr., No. 59, Amer. Meteor. Soc., https://doi.org/10.1175/AMSMONOGRAPHS-D-18-0020.1.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Bentsen, M., and Coauthors, 2013: The Norwegian Earth System Model, NorESM1-M—Part 1: Description and basic evaluation of the physical climate. Geosci. Model Dev., 6, 687720, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-687-2013.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Berry, E. X., and R. L. Reinhardt, 1974: An analysis of cloud drop growth by collection: Part I. Double distributions. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 18141824, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031<1814:AAOCDG>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Betts, A. K., 1986: A new convective adjustment scheme. Part I: Observational and theoretical basis. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 677691, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711247307.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Betts, A. K., and M. Miller, 1986: A new convective adjustment scheme. Part II: Single column tests using GATE wave, BOMEX, ATEX and arctic air-mass data sets. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 693709, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711247308.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Betts, A. K., J. H. Ball, A. Beljaars, M. J. Miller, and P. A. Viterbo, 1996: The land surface-atmosphere interaction: A review based on observational and global modeling perspectives. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 72097225, https://doi.org/10.1029/95JD02135.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bitz, C. M., and W. H. Lipscomb, 1999: An energy-conserving thermodynamic model of sea ice. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 15 66915 677, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JC900100.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bitz, C. M., M. M. Holland, A. J. Weaver, and M. Eby, 2001: Simulating the ice-thickness distribution in a coupled climate model. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 24412464, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JC000113.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bitz, C. M., M. M. Holland, E. C. Hunke, and R. E. Moritz, 2005: Maintenance of the sea-ice edge. J. Climate, 18, 29032921, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3428.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bjerknes, J., 1955: Investigations of the General Circulation of the Atmosphere. Department of Meteorology, University of California, Los Angeles, 350 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bjerknes, V., 1904: Das problem der wettervorhersage, betrachtet vom standpunkte der mechanik und der physik. Meteor. Z, 21, 17.

  • Bleck, R., 1970: A fast, approximative method for integrating the stochastic coalescence equation. J. Geophys. Res., 75, 51655171, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC075i027p05165.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bleck, R., 1973: Numerical forecasting experiments based on the conservation of potential vorticity on isentropic surfaces. J. Appl. Meteor., 12, 737752, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1973)012<0737:NFEBOT>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bleck, R., 2002: An oceanic general circulation model framed in hybrid isopycnic–cartesian coordinates. Ocean Modell., 4, 5588, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1463-5003(01)00012-9.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bleck, R., and S. G. Benjamin, 1993: Regional weather prediction with a model combining terrain-following and isentropic coordinates. Part I: Model description. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 17701785, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1993)121<1770:RWPWAM>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bleck, R., and D. Boudra, 1986: Wind-driven spin-up in eddy-resolving ocean models formulated in isopycnic and isobaric coordinates. J. Geophys. Res., 91, 76117621, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC091iC06p07611.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bleck, R., S. Benjamin, J. Lee, and A. E. MacDonald, 2010: On the use of an adaptive, hybrid-isentropic vertical coordinate in global atmospheric modeling. Mon. Wea. Rev., 138, 21882210, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009MWR3103.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bleck, R., and Coauthors, 2015: A vertically flow-following icosahedral grid model for medium-range and seasonal prediction. Part I: Model description. Mon. Wea. Rev., 143, 23862403, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-14-00300.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bogenschutz, P. A., and S. K. Krueger, 2013: A simplified PDF parameterization of subgrid-scale clouds and turbulence for cloud-resolving models. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 5, 195211, https://doi.org/10.1002/jame.20018.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bogenschutz, P. A., A. Gettelman, H. Morrison, V. E. Larson, C. Craig, and D. P. Schanen, 2013: Higher-order turbulence closure and its impact on climate simulations in the community atmosphere model. J. Climate, 26, 96559676, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00075.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bogenschutz, P. A., A. Gettelman, C. Hannay, V. E. Larson, R. B. Neale, C. Craig, and C.-C. Chen, 2018: The path to CAM6: Coupled simulations with CAM5.4 and CAM5.5. Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 235, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-235-2018.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bolin, B., 1955: Numerical forecasting with the barotropic model 1. Tellus, 7, 2749, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v7i1.8770.

  • Bonan, G. B., 1996: A land surface model (LSM version 1.0) for ecological, hydrological, and atmospheric studies: Technical description and user’s guide. NCAR Tech. Note NCAR/TN-417+STR, 155 pp., https://doi.org/10.5065/D6DF6P5X.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Bonan, G. B., 1998: The land surface climatology of the NCAR land surface model coupled to the NCAR Community Climate Model. J. Climate, 11, 13071326, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<1307:TLSCOT>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bonan, G. B., 2015: Ecological Climatology: Concepts and Applications. Cambridge University Press, 563 pp.

  • Bonan, G. B., S. Levis, S. Sitch, M. Vertenstein, and K. W. Oleson, 2003: A dynamic global vegetation model for use with climate models: Concepts and description of simulated vegetation dynamics. Global Change Biol., 9, 15431566, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00681.x.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Boucher, O., and U. Lohmann, 1995: The sulfate-CCN-cloud albedo effect. Tellus, 47B, 281300, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v47i3.16048.

  • Boucher, O., and Coauthors, 2013: Clouds and aerosols. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis, T. F. Stocker et al., Eds., Cambridge University Press, 571–657.

  • Bourke, W., 1974: A multi-level spectral model. I. Formulation and hemispheric integrations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 102, 687701, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1974)102<0687:AMLSMI>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Boville, B. A., and P. R. Gent, 1998: The NCAR Climate System Model, version one. J. Climate, 11, 11151130, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<1115:TNCSMV>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bradley, B. A., R. W. Jacob, J. F. Hermance, and J. F. Mustard, 2007: A curve fitting procedure to derive inter-annual phenologies from time series of noisy satellite NDVI data. Remote Sens. Environ., 106, 137145, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.08.002.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bradshaw, P., D. Ferriss, and N. Atwell, 1967: Calculation of boundary-layer development using the turbulent energy equation. J. Fluid Mech., 28, 593616, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112067002319.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Brenowitz, N. D., and C. S. Bretherton, 2018: Prognostic validation of a neural network unified physics parameterization. Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 62896298, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL078510.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Briegleb, B. P., and B. Light, 2007: A Delta-Eddington multiple scattering parameterization for solar radiation in the sea ice component of the Community Climate System Model. NCAR Tech. Note 472+STR, 100 pp.

  • Brubaker, K. L., and D. Entekhabi, 1996: Analysis of feedback mechanisms in land-atmosphere interaction. Water Resour. Res., 32, 13431357, https://doi.org/10.1029/96WR00005.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bryan, F., 1987: Parameter sensitivity of primitive equation ocean general circulation models. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 17, 970985, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1987)017<0970:PSOPEO>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bryan, K., 1966: A scheme for numerical integration of the equations of motion on an irregular grid free of nonlinear instability. Mon. Wea. Rev., 94, 3940, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1966)094<0039:ASFNIO>2.3.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bryan, K., 1969a: Climate and the ocean circulation III. The Ocean Model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 97, 806827, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1969)097<0806:CATOC>2.3.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bryan, K., 1969b: A numerical method for the study of the circulation of the world ocean. J. Comput. Phys., 4, 347376, https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9991(69)90004-7.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bryan, K., 1991: Michael Cox (1941–1989): His pioneering contributions to ocean circulation modeling. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 21, 12591270, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1991)021<1259:MCHPCT>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bryan, K., and M. D. Cox, 1967: A numerical investigation of the oceanic general circulation. Tellus, 19, 5480, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v19i1.9761.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bryan, K., and L. Lewis, 1979: A water mass model of the world ocean. J. Geophys. Res., 84, 25032517, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC084iC05p02503.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Budyko, M. I., 1969: The effect of solar radiatin variations on the climate of the earth. Tellus, 21, 611619, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v21i5.10109.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Budyko, M. I., and L. Zubenok, 1961: The determination of evaporation from the land surface. Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Geogr., 6, 317.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Bunker, A. F., B. Haurwitz, J. S. Malkus, and H. M. Stommel, 1949: Vertical Distribution of Temperature and Humidity over the Caribbean Sea. Vol. 11, Papers in Physical Oceanography and Meteorology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 85 pp.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Burridge, D. M., and J. Haseler, 1977: A model for medium-range weather forecasts: Adiabatic formation. ECMWF Tech. Rep. 4, 46 pp.

  • Bushby, F., and M. S. Timpson, 1967: A 10-level atmospheric model and frontal rain. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 93, 117, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709339502.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Businger, J. A., J. C. Wyngaard, Y. Izumi, and E. F. Bradley, 1971: Flux-profile relationships in the atmospheric surface layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 181189, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028<0181:FPRITA>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cahalan, R. F., W. Ridgway, W. J. Wiscombe, T. L. Bell, and J. B. Snider, 1994: The albedo of fractal stratocumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 24342455, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1994)051<2434:TAOFSC>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cairns, B., A. A. Lacis, and B. E. Carlson, 2000: Absorption within inhomogeneous clouds and its parameterization in general circulation models. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 700714, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<0700:AWICAI>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Callendar, G. S., 1938: The artificial production of carbon dioxide and its influence on temperature. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 64, 223240, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49706427503.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Campin, J.-M., C. Hill, H. Jones, and J. Marshall, 2011: Super-parameterization in ocean modeling: Application to deep convection. Ocean Modell., 36, 90101, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2010.10.003.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cess, R. D., and Coauthors, 1989: Interpretation of cloud-climate feedback as produced by 14 atmospheric general circulation models. Science, 245, 513516, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.245.4917.513.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Charney, J. G., 1962: Integration of the primitive and balance equations. Proc. Int. Symp. on Numerical Weather Prediction in Tokyo. Tokyo, Japan, Meteorological Society of Japan, 131–152.

  • Charney, J. G., 1966: The feasibility of a global observation and analysis experiment. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 47, 200230, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-47.3.200.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Charney, J. G., 1975: Dynamics of deserts and drought in the Sahel. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 101, 193202, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710142802.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Charney, J. G., and N. A. Phillips, 1953: Numerical integration of the quasi-geostrophic equations for barotropic and simple baroclinic flow. J. Meteor., 10, 7199, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1953)010<0071:NIOTQG>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Charney, J. G., R. Fjörtoft, and J. V. Neumann, 1950: Numerical integration of the barotropic vorticity equation. Tellus, 2, 237254, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v2i4.8607.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Charney, J. G., M. Halem, and R. Jastrow, 1969: Use of incomplete historical data to infer the present state of the atmosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 26, 11601163, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1969)026<1160:UOIHDT>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Charney, J. G., and Coauthors, 1979: Carbon dioxide and climate: A scientific assessment. National Academies Press, 34 pp., https://doi.org/10.17226/12181.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Chen, J.-M., 1991: Turbulence-scale condensation parameterization. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 15101512, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1991)048<1510:TSCP>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cheng, M.-D., and A. Arakawa, 1997: Inclusion of rainwater budget and convective downdrafts in the Arakawa–Schubert cumulus parameterization. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 13591378, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054<1359:IORBAC>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Chevallier, F., F. Chéruy, N. Scott, and A. Chédin, 1998: A neural network approach for a fast and accurate computation of a longwave radiative budget. J. Appl. Meteor., 37, 13851397, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1998)037<1385:ANNAFA>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Clement, V., S. Ferrachat, O. Fuhrer, X. Lapillonne, C. E. Osuna, R. Pincus, J. Rood, and W. Sawyer, 2018: The CLAW DSL: Abstractions for performance portable weather and climate models. Proc. Platform for Advanced Scientific Computing Conf., New York, NY, ACM, 2:1–2:10, https://doi.org/10.1145/3218176.3218226.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Clough, S. A., M. J. Iacono, and J.-L. Moncet, 1992: Line-by-line calculations of atmospheric fluxes and cooling rates: Application to water vapor. J. Geophys. Res., 97, 15 76115 785, https://doi.org/10.1029/92JD01419.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cohard, J.-M., and J.-P. Pinty, 2000: A comprehensive two-moment warm microphysical bulk scheme. I: Description and tests. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 126, 18151842, https://doi.org/10.1256/smsqj.56613.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Collatz, G. J., J. T. Ball, C. Grivet, and J. A. Berry, 1991: Physiological and environmental regulation of stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and transpiration: a model that includes a laminar boundary layer. Agric. For. Meteor., 54, 107136, https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1923(91)90002-8.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Collins, W. D., 2001: Parameterization of generalized cloud overlap for radiative calculations in general circulation models. J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 32243242, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2001)058<3224:POGCOF>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Collins, W. D., and Coauthors, 2006a: The Community Climate System Model Version 3, CCSM3. J. Climate, 19, 21222143, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3761.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Collins, W. D., and Coauthors, 2006b: Radiative forcing by well-mixed greenhouse gases: Estimates from climate models in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). J. Geophys. Res., 111, D14317, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006713.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Coon, M. D., G. A. Maykut, R. S. Pritchard, D. A. Rothrock, and A. S. Thorndike, 1974: Modeling the pack ice as an elastic-plastic material. AIDJEX Bull., 24, 1105.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Corby, G., A. Gilchrist, and P. Rowntree, 1977: United Kingdom Meteorological Office five-level general circulation model. Methods in Computational Physics: Advances in Research and Applications, Vol. 17, Elsevier, 67–110.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Côté, J., and A. Staniforth, 1988: A two-time-level semi-Lagrangian semi-implicit scheme for spectral models. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 20032012, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1988)116<2003:ATTLSL>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Courant, R., K. Friedrichs, and H. Lewy, 1928: Über die partiellen differenzengleichungen der mathematischen physik. Math. Ann., 100, 3274, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01448839.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Courant, R., K. Friedrichs, and H. Lewy, 1967: On the partial difference equations of mathematical physics. IBM J. Res. Dev., 11, 215234, https://doi.org/10.1147/rd.112.0215.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Courtier, P., and M. Naughton, 1994: A pole problem in the reduced Gaussian grid. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 120, 13891407, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712051913.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Covey, C., K. M. AchutaRao, U. Cubasch, P. Jones, S. J. Lambert, M. E. Mann, T. J. Phillips, and K. E. Taylor, 2003: An overview of results from the coupled model intercomparison project. Global Planet. Change, 37, 103133, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8181(02)00193-5.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cox, M. D., 1984: A primitive equation, 3-dimensional model of the ocean. GFDL Ocean Group Tech. Rep. 1, GFDL, Princeton University, 163 pp.

  • Cox, M. D., 1987: Isopycnal diffusion in a z-coordinate ocean model. Ocean Modell., 74, 15.

  • Cox, P. M., 2001: Description of the triffid dynamic global vegetation model. Hadley Centre Tech. Note 24, 16 pp.

  • Cox, P. M., C. Huntingford, and R. J. Harding, 1998: A canopy conductance and photosynthesis model for use in a GCM land surface scheme. J. Hydrol., 212, 7994, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(98)00203-0.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cox, P. M., R. A. Betts, C. D. Jones, S. A. Spall, and I. J. Totterdell, 2000: Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model. Nature, 408, 184, https://doi.org/10.1038/35041539.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cox, P. M., R. Betts, M. Collins, P. P. Harris, C. Huntingford, and C. Jones, 2004: Amazonian forest dieback under climate-carbon cycle projections for the 21st century. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 78, 137156, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-004-0049-4.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cox, P. M., D. Pearson, B. B. Booth, P. Friedlingstein, C. Huntingford, C. D. Jones, and C. M. Luke, 2013: Sensitivity of tropical carbon to climate change constrained by carbon dioxide variability. Nature, 494, 341, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11882.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cox, S. K., D. S. McDougal, D. A. Randall, and R. A. Schiffer, 1987: FIRE—The first ISCCP regional experiment. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 68, 114118, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1987)068<0114:FFIRE>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Craig, A. P., M. Vertenstein, and R. Jacob, 2012: A new flexible coupler for earth system modeling developed for CCSM4 and CESM1. Int. J. High Perform. Comput. Appl., 26, 3142, https://doi.org/10.1177/1094342011428141.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cramer, W., and Coauthors, 2001: Global response of terrestrial ecosystem structure and function to CO2 and climate change: Results from six dynamic global vegetation models. Global Change Biol., 7, 357373, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2486.2001.00383.x.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cubasch, U., K. Hasselmann, H. Höck, E. Maier-Reimer, U. Mikolajewicz, B. D. Santer, and R. Sausen, 1992: Time-dependent greenhouse warming computations with a coupled ocean–atmosphere model. Climate Dyn., 8, 5569, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00209163.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Cullen, M., 1993: The unified forecast/climate model. Meteor. Mag., 122, 8194.

  • Cullen, M., T. Davies, M. Mawson, J. James, S. Coulter, and A. Malcolm, 1997: An overview of numerical methods for the next generation U.K. NWP and climate model. Atmos.–Ocean, 35 (Suppl. 1), 425–444, https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.1997.9687359.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Curtis, A. R., 1956: The computation of radiative heating rates in the atmosphere. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 236A, 156159.

  • Curtis, A. R., and R. M. Goody, 1954: Spectral line shape and its effect on atmospheric transmissions. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 80, 5867, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49708034307.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dai, Y., R. E. Dickinson, and Y.-P. Wang, 2004: A two-big-leaf model for canopy temperature, photosynthesis, and stomatal conductance. J. Climate, 17, 22812299, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<2281:ATMFCT>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Danabasoglu, G., J. C. McWilliams, and P. R. Gent, 1994: The role of mesoscale tracer transports in the global ocean circulation. Science, 264, 11231126, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.264.5162.1123.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Danabasoglu, G., W. G. Large, J. J. Tribbia, P. R. Gent, B. P. Briegleb, and J. C. McWilliams, 2006: Diurnal coupling in the tropical oceans of CCSM3. J. Climate, 19, 23472365, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3739.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Danabasoglu, G., S. C. Bates, B. P. Briegleb, S. R. Jayne, M. Jochum, W. G. Large, S. Peacock, and S. G. Yeager, 2012: The CCSM4 ocean component. J. Climate, 25, 13611389, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00091.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Danilov, S., 2013: Ocean modeling on unstructured meshes. Ocean Modell., 69, 195210, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2013.05.005.

  • Davies, T., M. Cullen, M. Mawson, and A. Malcolm, 1998: A new dynamical formulation for the UK Meteorological Office Unified Model. Proc. Seminar on Recent Developments in Numerical Methods for Atmospheric Modelling, Shinfield Park, Reading, ECMWF, 711.

  • Deardorff, J. W., 1964: A numerical study of two-dimensional parallel-plate convection. J. Atmos. Sci., 21, 419438, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1964)021<0419:ANSOTP>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Deardorff, J. W., 1972a: Parameterization of the planetary boundary layer for use in general circulation models. Mon. Wea. Rev., 100, 93106, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1972)100<0093:POTPBL>2.3.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Deardorff, J. W., 1972b: Numerical investigation of neutral and unstable planetary boundary layers. J. Atmos. Sci., 29, 91115, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1972)029<0091:NIONAU>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Deardorff, J. W., 1974: Three-dimensional numerical study of the height and mean structure of a heated planetary boundary layer. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 7, 81106, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00224974.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Deardorff, J. W., 1978: Efficient prediction of ground surface temperature and moisture, with inclusion of a layer of vegetation. J. Geophys. Res., 83, 18891903, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC083iC04p01889.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Deardorff, J. W., 1980: Stratocumulus-capped mixed layers derived from a three-dimensional model. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 18, 495527, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00119502.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dee, D. P., and Coauthors, 2011: The ERA-Interim Reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 137, 553597, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.828.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • DeMott, P. J., and Coauthors, 2010: Predicting global atmospheric ice nuclei distributions and their impacts on climate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 107, 11 21711 222, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910818107.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dennis, J. M., and Coauthors, 2012: CAM-SE: A scalable spectral element dynamical core for the Community Atmosphere Model. Int. J. High Perform. Comput. Appl., 26, 7489, https://doi.org/10.1177/1094342011428142.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dickinson, R. E., and A. Henderson-Sellers, 1988: Modelling tropical deforestation: A study of GCM land-surface parametrizations. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 114, 439462, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711448009.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dickinson, R. E., A. Henderson-Sellers, P. Kennedy, and M. Wilson, 1986: Biosphere–Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (BATS) for the Community Climate Model. NCAR Tech. Note NCAR/TN-275+STR, 72 pp., https://doi.org/10.5065/D6668B58.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Dickinson, R. E., Y. Tian, Q. Liu, and L. Zhou, 2008: Dynamics of leaf area for climate and weather models. J. Geophys. Res., 113, D16115, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD008934.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Diedhiou, A., and J.-F. Mahfouf, 1996: Comparative influence of land and sea surfaces on the sahelian drought: A numerical study. Ann. Geophys., 14, 115130, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00585-996-0115-6.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dietachmayer, G. S., and K. K. Droegemeier, 1992: Application of continuous dynamic grid adaption techniques to meteorological modeling. Part I: Basic formulation and accuracy. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 16751706, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1992)120<1675:AOCDGA>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dirmeyer, P. A., 1994: Vegetation stress as a feedback mechanism in midlatitude drought. J. Climate, 7, 14631483, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<1463:VSAAFM>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Donaldson, C. P., 1973: Construction of a dynamic model of the production of atmospheric turbulence and the dispersal of atmospheric pollutants. Workshop on Micrometeorology, Boston, MA, Amer. Meteor. Soc, 313392.

  • Donaldson, C. P., and H. Rosenbaum, 1969: Calculation of turbulent, shear flows through closure of the Reynolds equations by invariant modeling. NASA Spec. Publ., 216, 231.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Donea, J., A. Huerta, J.-P. Ponthot, and A. Rodriguez-Ferran, 2004: Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian methods. Fundamentals, Vol. 1, Encyclopedia of Computational Mechanics, E. Stein, R. Borst, and T. J. Hughes, Eds., Wiley & Sons, https://doi.org/10.1002/0470091355.ecm009.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Donner, L., W. Schubert, and R. Somerville, 2011: The Development of Atmospheric General Circulation Models: Complexity, Synthesis and Computation. Cambridge University Press, 272 pp.

  • Douville, H., F. Chauvin, and H. Broqua, 2001: Influence of soil moisture on the Asian and African monsoons. Part I: Mean monsoon and daily precipitation. J. Climate, 14, 23812403, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<2381:IOSMOT>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dubos, T., and N. Kevlahan, 2013: A conservative adaptive wavelet method for the shallow-water equations on staggered grids. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 139, 19972020, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2097.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dufresne, J.-L., L. Fairhead, H. Le Treut, M. Berthelot, L. Bopp, P. Ciais, P. Friedlingstein, and P. Monfray, 2002: On the magnitude of positive feedback between future climate change and the carbon cycle. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1405, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013777.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dukowicz, J. K., and R. D. Smith, 1994: Implicit free-surface method for the Bryan–Cox–Semtner ocean model. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 79918014, https://doi.org/10.1029/93JC03455.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Dunne, J. P., and Coauthors, 2012: GFDL’s ESM2 global coupled climate–carbon earth system models. Part I: Physical formulation and baseline simulation characteristics. J. Climate, 25, 66466665, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00560.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Eddington, A. S., 1916: On the radiative equilibrium of the stars. Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 77, 1635, https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/77.1.16.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Edwards, J. M., and A. Slingo, 1996: Studies with a flexible new radiation code. I: Choosing a configuration for a large-scale model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 122, 689719, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712253107.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Edwards, P. N., 2010: A Vast Machine: Computer Models, Climate Data, and the Politics of Global Warming. MIT Press, 528 pp.

  • Edwards, P. N., 2011: History of climate modeling. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev.: Climate Change, 2, 128139, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.95.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Eliassen, A., 1960: On the transfer of energy in stationary mountain waves. Geophys. Publ., 22, 123.

  • Eliassen, A., and E. Raustein, 1968: A numerical integration experiment with a model atmosphere based on isentropic surfaces. Meteor. Ann., 5, 4563.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Eliassen, E., B. Machenhauer, and E. Rasmussen, 1970: On a numerical method for integration of the hydrodynamical equations with a spectral representation of the horizontal fields. Institute for Teoretical Meteorology, University of Copenhagen, 74 pp.

  • Ellingson, R. G., and Y. Fouquart, 1991: The intercomparison of radiation codes in climate models: An overview. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 89258927, https://doi.org/10.1029/90JD01618.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Ellingson, R. G., J. Ellis, and S. Fels, 1991: The intercomparison of radiation codes used in climate models: Long wave results. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 89298953, https://doi.org/10.1029/90JD01450.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Elsaesser, G. S., A. D. Del Genio, J. H. Jiang, and M. van Lier-Walqui, 2017: An improved convective ice parameterization for the NASA GISS global climate model and impacts on cloud ice simulation. J. Climate, 30, 317336, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0346.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Elsasser, W. M., and M. F. Culbertson, 1960: Atmospheric Radiation Tables. Meteor. Monogr., No. 23, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 43 pp.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Eltahir, E. A., 1998: A soil moisture–rainfall feedback mechanism: 1. theory and observations. Water Resour. Res., 34, 765776, https://doi.org/10.1029/97WR03499.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Emanuel, K. A., 1981: A similarity theory for unsaturated downdrafts within clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 15411557, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1981)038<1541:ASTFUD>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Emanuel, K. A., 1991: A scheme for representing cumulus convection in large-scale models. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 23132329, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1991)048<2313:ASFRCC>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Eyring, V., S. Bony, G. A. Meehl, C. A. Senior, B. Stevens, R. J. Stouffer, and K. E. Taylor, 2016: Overview of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) experimental design and organization. Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 19371958, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1937-2016.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Farquhar, G. V., S. V. von Caemmerer, and J. Berry, 1980: A biochemical model of photosynthetic CO2 assimilation in leaves of C3 species. Planta, 149, 7890, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00386231.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Feingold, G., S. M. Kreidenweis, B. Stevens, and W. Cotton, 1996: Numerical simulations of stratocumulus processing of cloud condensation nuclei through collision–coalescence. J. Geophys. Res., 101 21 39121 402, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD01552.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fels, S. B., and M. D. Schwarzkopf, 1975: The Simplified Exchange Approximation: A new method for radiative transfer calculations. J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 14751488, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<1475:TSEAAN>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fennessy, M. J., and J. Shukla, 1999: Impact of initial soil wetness on seasonal atmospheric prediction. J. Climate, 12, 31673180, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1999)012<3167:IOISWO>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fichefet, T., and M. A. Morales-Maqueda, 1997: Sensitivity of a global sea ice model to the treatment of ice thermodynamics and dynamics. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 12 60912 646, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JC00480.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fiedler, F., and H. A. Panofsky, 1970: Atmospheric scales and spectral gaps. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 51, 11141120, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1970)051<1114:ASASG>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Flato, G. M., and W. D. Hibler III, 1992: Modeling pack ice as a cavitating fluid. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 22, 626651, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1992)022<0626:MPIAAC>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Flato, G. M., G. Boer, W. Lee, N. McFarlane, D. Ramsden, M. Reader, and A. Weaver, 2000: The Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis global coupled model and its climate. Climate Dyn., 16, 451467, https://doi.org/10.1007/s003820050339.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fleming, J. R., 2016: Inventing Atmospheric Science: Bjerknes, Rossby, Wexler, and the Foundations of Modern Meteorology. MIT Press, 306 pp.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Flocco, D., and D. L. Feltham, 2007: A continuum model of melt pond evolution on Arctic sea ice. J. Geophys. Res., 112, C08016, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JC003836.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Foken, T., 2006: 50 years of the Monin–Obukhov similarity theory. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 119, 431447, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-006-9048-6.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Foley, J. A., I. C. Prentice, N. Ramankutty, S. Levis, D. Pollard, S. Sitch, and A. Haxeltine, 1996: An integrated biosphere model of land surface processes, terrestrial carbon balance, and vegetation dynamics. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 10, 603628, https://doi.org/10.1029/96GB02692.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Folland, C. K., D. J. Griggs, and J. T. Houghton, 2004: History of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research. Weather, 59, 317323, https://doi.org/10.1256/wea.121.04.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fouquart, Y., B. Bonnel, and V. Ramaswamy, 1991: Intercomparing shortwave radiation codes for climate studies. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 89558968, https://doi.org/10.1029/90JD00290.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fovell, R., D. Durran, and J. Holton, 1992: Numerical simulations of convectively generated stratospheric gravity waves. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 14271442, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1992)049<1427:NSOCGS>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fowler, L. D., D. A. Randall, and S. A. Rutledge, 1996: Liquid and ice cloud microphysics in the CSU general circulation model. Part 1: Model description and simulated microphysical processes. J. Climate, 9, 489529, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<0489:LAICMI>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fox-Kemper, B., R. Ferrari, and R. Hallberg, 2008: Parameterization of mixed layer eddies. Part I: Theory and diagnosis. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 38, 11451165, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JPO3792.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fridlind, A. M., and Coauthors, 2004: Evidence for the predominance of mid-tropospheric aerosols as subtropical anvil cloud nuclei. Science, 304, 718722, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1094947.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Friedlingstein, P., J.-L. Dufresne, P. Cox, and P. Rayner, 2003: How positive is the feedback between climate change and the carbon cycle? Tellus, 55B, 692700, https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.2003.01461.x.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Friedlingstein, P., and Coauthors, 2006: Climate–carbon cycle feedback analysis: results from the C4MIP model intercomparison. J. Climate, 19, 33373353, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3800.1.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Friend, A. D., and Coauthors, 2007: FLUXNET and modelling the global carbon cycle. Global Change Biol., 13, 610633, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01223.x.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fu, Q., and K. N. Liou, 1992: On the correlated k-distribution method for radiative transfer in nonhomogeneous atmospheres. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 21392156, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1992)049<2139:OTCDMF>2.0.CO;2.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • Fultz, D., R. R. Long, G. V. Owens, W. Bohan, R. Kaylor, and J. Weil, 1959: Studies of thermal convection in a rotating cylinder with some implications for large-scale atmospheric motions. Studies of Thermal Convection in a Rotating Cylinder with Some Implications for Large-Scale Atmospheric Motions, Springer, 1–104.

    • Crossref
    • Export Citation
  • Fung, I., C. Tucker, and K. Prentice, 1987: Application of advanced very high resolution radiometer vegetation index to study atmosphere-biosphere exchange of co2. J. Geophys. Res., 92, 29993015, https://doi.org/10.1029/JD092iD03p02999.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation