Abdul-Razzak, H., and S. J. Ghan, 2000: A parameterization of aerosol activation 2. Multiple aerosol types. J. Geophys. Res., 105 (D5), 6837–6844.
Abdul-Razzak, H., S. J. Ghan, and C. Rivera-Carpio, 1998: A parameterization of aerosol activation. 1. Single aerosol type. J. Geophys. Res., 103 (D6), 6123–6131.
Ackerman, A. S., O. B. Toon, and P. V. Hobbs, 1993: Dissipation of marine stratiform clouds and collapse of the marine boundary-layer due to the depletion of cloud condensation nuclei by clouds. Science, 262, 226–229.
Ackerman, A. S., O. B. Toon, and P. V. Hobbs, 1995: Numerical modeling of ship tracks produced by injections of cloud condensation nuclei into marine stratiform clouds. J. Geophys. Res., 100 (D4), 7121–7133.
Ackerman, A. S., O. B. Toon, D. E. Stevens, A. J. Heymsfield, V. Ramanathan, and E. J. Welton, 2000: Reduction of tropical cloudiness by soot. Science, 288, 1042–1047.
Ackerman, A. S., M. P. Kirkpatrick, D. E. Stevens, and O. B. Toon, 2004: The impact of humidity above stratiform clouds on indirect aerosol climate forcing. Nature, 432, 1014–1017.
Ackerman, A. S., and Coauthors, 2009: Large-eddy simulations of a drizzling, stratocumulus-topped marine boundary layer. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 1083–1110.
Ackerman, T., and M. B. Baker, 1977: Shortwave radiative effects of unactivated aerosol-particles in clouds. J. Appl. Meteor., 16, 63–69.
Agee, E. M., 1987: Meso-scale cellular convection over the oceans. Dyn. Atmos. Oceans, 10, 317–341.
Agee, E. M., T. S. Chen, and K. E. Dowell, 1973: A review of mesoscale cellular convection. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 54, 1004–1012.
Albrecht, B. A., C. W. Fairall, D. W. Thomson, A. B. White, J. B. Snider, and W. H. Schubert, 1990: Surface-based remote-sensing of the observed and the adiabatic liquid water content of stratocumulus clouds. Geophys. Res. Lett., 17, 89–92.
Albrecht, B. A., C. S. Bretherton, D. Johnson, W. H. Schubert, and A. S. Frisch, 1995a: The Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition Experiment—ASTEX. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 76, 889–904.
Albrecht, B. A., M. P. Jensen, and W. J. Syrett, 1995b: Marine boundary layer structure and fractional cloudiness. J. Geophys. Res., 100 (D7), 14 209–14 222.
Arnason, G., and R. S. Greenfield, 1972: Micro- and macro-structures of numerically simulated convective clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 29, 342–367.
Atkinson, B. W., and J. W. Zhang, 1996: Mesoscale shallow convection in the atmosphere. Rev. Geophys., 34, 403–431.
Austin, P., Y. Wang, R. Pincus, and V. Kujala, 1995: Precipitation in stratocumulus clouds: Observations and modelling results. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2329–2352.
Baker, M. B., 1993: Variability in concentrations of cloud condensation nuclei in the marine cloud-topped boundary layer. Tellus, 45B, 458–472.
Barker, H. W., J. J. Morcrette, and G. D. Alexander, 1998: Broadband solar fluxes and heating rates for atmospheres with 3D broken clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 124, 1245–1271.
Beesley, J. A., and R. E. Moritz, 1999: Toward an explanation of the annual cycle of cloudiness over the Arctic Ocean. J. Climate, 12, 395–415.
Beheng, K. D., 1994: A parameterization of warm cloud microphysical conversion processes. Atmos. Res., 33, 193–206.
Beheng, K. D., and G. Doms, 1986: A general formulation of collection rates of cloud and raindrops using the kinetic equation and comparison with parameterizations. Beitr. Phys. Atmos., 59, 66–84.
Bennartz, R., 2007: Global assessment of marine boundary layer cloud droplet number concentration from satellite. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D02201, doi:10.1029/2006JD007547.
Bergman, J. W., and M. L. Salby, 1996: Diurnal variations of cloud cover and their relationship to climatological conditions. J. Climate, 9, 2802–2820.
Berner, A., C. S. Bretherton, and R. Wood, 2011: Large-eddy simulation of mesoscale dynamics and entrainment around a pocket of open cells observed in VOCALS RF06. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 13 317–13 353.
Betts, A. K., and W. Ridgway, 1989: Climatic equilibrium of the atmospheric convective boundary layer over a tropical ocean. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 2621–2641.
Betts, A. K., C. S. Bretherton, and E. Klinker, 1995: Relation between mean boundary-layer structure and cloudiness at the R/V Valdivia during ASTEX. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2752–2762.
Boers, R., and P. B. Krummel, 1998: Microphysical properties of boundary layer clouds over the Southern Ocean during ACE 1. J. Geophys. Res., 103 (D13), 16 651–16 663.
Boers, R., G. P. Ayers, and J. L. Gras, 1994: Coherence between seasonal-variation in satellite-derived cloud optical depth and boundary-layer CCN concentrations at a midlatitude southern-hemisphere station. Tellus, 46B, 123–131.
Bony, S., and J.-L. Dufresne, 2005: Marine boundary layer clouds at the heart of cloud feedback uncertainties in climate models. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L20806, doi:10.1029/2005GL023851.
Brenguier, J.-L., and R. Wood, 2009: Observational strategies from the micro to meso scale. Clouds in the Perturbed Climate System: Their Relationship to Energy Balance, Atmospheric Dynamics, and Precipitation, J. Heintzenberg and R. Charlson, Eds., MIT Press, 487–510.
Brenguier, J. L., H. Pawlowska, L. Schuller, R. Preusker, J. Fischer, and Y. Fouquart, 2000a: Radiative properties of boundary layer clouds: Droplet effective radius versus number concentration. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 803–821.
Brenguier, J. L., and Coauthors, 2000b: An overview of the ACE-2 CLOUDYCOLUMN closure experiment. Tellus, 52B, 815–827.
Bretherton, C. S., 1997: Convection in stratocumulus-capped atmospheric boundary layers. The Physics and Parameterization of Moist Atmospheric Convection, R. K. Smith, Ed., Kluwer Publishers, 127–142.
Bretherton, C. S., and R. Pincus, 1995: Cloudiness and marine boundary layer dynamics in the ASTEX Lagrangian experiments. Part I: Synoptic setting and vertical structure. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2707–2723.
Bretherton, C. S., and M. C. Wyant, 1997: Moisture transport, lower-tropospheric stability, and decoupling of cloud-topped boundary layers. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 148–167.
Bretherton, C. S., and D. L. Hartmann, 2009: Large-scale controls on cloudiness. Clouds in the Perturbed Climate System: Their Relationship to Energy Balance, Atmospheric Dynamics, and Precipitation, J. Heintzenberg and R. Charlson, Eds., MIT Press, 217–234.
Bretherton, C. S., P. Austin, and S. T. Siems, 1995: Cloudiness and marine boundary layer dynamics in the ASTEX Lagrangian experiments. Part II: Cloudiness, drizzle, surface fluxes and entrainment. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2724–2735.
Bretherton, C. S., T. Uttal, C. W. Fairall, S. E. Yuter, R. A. Weller, D. Baumgardner, K. Comstock, and R. Wood, 2004: The EPIC 2001 stratocumulus study. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 85, 967–977.
Bretherton, C. S., P. Blossey, and J. Uchida, 2007: Cloud droplet sedimentation, entrainment efficiency, and subtropical stratocumulus albedo. Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L03813, doi:10.1029/2006GL027648.
Bretherton, C. S., R. George, R. Wood, G. Allen, D. Leon, and B. Albrecht, 2010a: Southeast Pacific stratocumulus clouds, precipitation and boundary layer structure sampled along 20S during VOCALS-REx. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 15 921–15 962.
Bretherton, C. S., J. Uchida, and P. Blossey, 2010b: Slow manifolds and multiple equilibria in stratocumulus-capped boundary layers. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 2, doi:10.3894/JAMES.2010.2.14.
Brost, R. A., D. H. Lenschow, and J. C. Wyngaard, 1982a: Marine stratocumulus layers. Part I: Mean conditions. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 800–817.
Brost, R. A., J. C. Wyngaard, and D. H. Lenschow, 1982b: Marine stratocumulus layers. Part II: Turbulence budgets. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 818–836.
Cahalan, R. F., and J. B. Snider, 1989: Marine stratocumulus structure. Remote Sens. Environ., 28, 95–107.
Cahalan, R. F., W. Ridgway, W. J. Wiscombe, T. L. Bell, and J. B. Snider, 1994: The albedo of fractal stratocumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2434–2455.
Caldwell, P., and C. S. Bretherton, 2009: Response of a subtropical stratocumulus-capped mixed layer to climate and aerosol changes. J. Climate, 22, 20–38.
Caldwell, P., R. Wood, and C. S. Bretherton, 2005: Mixed-layer budget analysis of the diurnal cycle of entrainment in southeast Pacific stratocumulus. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 3775–3791.
Cantrell, W., and A. Heymsfield, 2005: Production of ice in tropospheric clouds: A review. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 86, 795–807.
Caughey, S. J., and M. Kitchen, 1984: Simultaneous measurements of the turbulent and microphysical structure of nocturnal stratocumulus cloud. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 110, 13–34.
Caughey, S. J., B. A. Crease, and W. T. Roach, 1982: A field-study of nocturnal stratocumulus. 2. Turbulence structure and entrainment. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 108, 125–144.
Chen, T., W. B. Rossow, and Y. C. Zhang, 2000: Radiative effects of cloud-type variations. J. Climate, 13, 264–286.
Chlond, A., 1992: Three-dimensional simulation of cloud street development during a cold air outbreak. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 58, 161–200.
Christensen, M. W., and G. L. Stephens, 2011: Microphysical and macrophysical responses of marine stratocumulus polluted by underlying ships: Evidence of cloud deepening. J. Geophys. Res., 116, D03201, doi:10.1029/2010JD014638.
Chylek, P., P. Damiano, and E. P. Shettle, 1992: Infrared emittance of water clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 1459–1472.
Chylek, P., G. B. Lesins, G. Videen, J. G. D. Wong, R. G. Pinnick, D. Ngo, and J. D. Klett, 1996: Black carbon and absorption of solar radiation by clouds. J. Geophys. Res., 101 (D18), 23 365–23 371.
Ciesielski, P. E., W. H. Schubert, and R. H. Johnson, 1999: Large-scale heat and moisture budgets over the ASTEX region. J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 3241–3261.
Ciesielski, P. E., W. H. Schubert, and R. H. Johnson, 2001: Diurnal variability of the marine boundary layer during ASTEX. J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 2355–2376.
Coakley, J. A. J., and C. D. Walsh, 2002: Limits to the aerosol indirect radiative effect derived from observations of ship tracks. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 668–680.
Cohard, J. M., and J. P. Pinty, 2000: A comprehensive two-moment warm microphysical bulk scheme. I: Description and tests. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 126, 1815–1842.
Cohard, J. M., J. P. Pinty, and C. Bedos, 1998: Extending Twomey’s analytical estimate of nucleated cloud droplet concentrations from CCN spectra. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 3348–3357.
Comstock, K., R. Wood, S. Yuter, and C. S. Bretherton, 2004: Radar observations of precipitation in and below stratocumulus clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 130, 2891–2918.
Comstock, K., C. S. Bretherton, and S. Yuter, 2005: Mesoscale variability and drizzle in southeast Pacific stratocumulus. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 3792–3807.
Comstock, K., S. E. Yuter, R. Wood, and C. S. Bretherton, 2007: The three dimensional structure and kinematics of drizzling stratocumulus. Mon. Wea. Rev., 135, 3767–3784.
Conant, W. C., and Coauthors, 2004: Aerosol–cloud drop concentration closure in warm cumulus. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D13204, doi:10.1029/2003JD004324.
Curry, J. A., W. B. Rossow, D. Randall, and J. L. Schramm, 1996: Overview of Arctic cloud and radiation characteristics. J. Climate, 9, 1731–1764.
Dai, A., 2001: Global precipitation and thunderstorm frequencies. Part II: Diurnal variations. J. Climate, 14, 1112–1128.
Dai, A., T. R. Karl, B. M. Sun, and K. E. Trenberth, 2006: Recent trends in cloudiness over the United States—A tale of monitoring inadequacies. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 87, 597–606.
Danielson, R. E., D. R. Moore, and H. Van de Hulst, 1969: Transfer of visible radiation through clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 26, 1078–1087.
Davis, A., A. Marshak, W. Wiscombe, and R. Cahahlan, 1996: Scale invariance of liquid water distributions in marine stratocumulus. Part I: Spectral properties and strationarity issues. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 1538–1558.
Davis, A., A. Marshak, H. Gerber, and W. J. Wiscombe, 1999: Horizontal structure of marine boundary layer clouds from centimeter to kilometer scales. J. Geophys. Res., 104 (D6), 6123–6144.
de Roode, S. R., and P. G. Duynkerke, 1996: Dynamics of cumulus rising into stratocumulus as observed during the first ‘Lagrangian’ experiment of ASTEX. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 122, 1597–1623.
de Roode, S. R., and P. G. Duynkerke, 1997: Observed Lagrangian transition of stratocumulus into cumulus during ASTEX: Mean state and turbulence structure. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 2157–2173.
de Roode, S. R., and Q. Wang, 2007: Do stratocumulus clouds detrain? FIRE I data revisited. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 122, 479–491.
de Roode, S. R., P. G. Duynkerke, and H. J. Jonker, 2004: Large eddy simulation: How large is large enough? J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 403–421.
Deardorff, J. W., 1976: Entrainment rate of stratocumulus topped mixed layer. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 563–582.
Deardorff, J. W., 1980a: Cloud top entrainment instability. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 561–563.
Deardorff, J. W., 1980b: Stratocumulus-capped mixed layers derived from a 3-dimensional model. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 18, 495–527.
Deardorff, J. W., 1981: On the distribution of mean radiative cooling at the top of a stratocumulus-capped mixed layer. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 107, 191–202.
Driedonks, A. G. M., 1982: Models and observations of the growth of the atmospheric boundary-layer. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 23, 283–306.
Driedonks, A. G. M., and P. G. Duynkerke, 1989: Current problems in the stratocumulus-topped atmospheric boundary-layer–(survey paper). Bound.-Layer Meteor., 46, 275–303.
Dusek, U., and Coauthors, 2006: Size matters more than chemistry for cloud-nucleating ability of aerosol particles. Science, 312, 1375–1378.
Duynkerke, P. G., 1993: The stability of cloud top with regard to entrainment: Amendment of the theory of cloud-top entrainment instability. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 495–502.
Duynkerke, P. G., and P. Hignett, 1993: Simulation of a diurnal variation in a stratocumulus-capped marine boundary layer during FIRE. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 3291–3300.
Duynkerke, P. G., and J. Teixeira, 2001: Comparison of the ECMWF reanalysis with FIRE I observations: Diurnal variation of marine stratocumulus. J. Climate, 14, 1466–1478.
Duynkerke, P. G., H. Q. Zhang, and P. J. Jonker, 1995: Microphysical and turbulent structure of nocturnal stratocumulus as observed during ASTEX. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2763–2777.
Eastman, R., S. G. Warren, and C. J. Hahn, 2011: Variations in cloud cover and cloud types over the ocean from surface observations, 1954–2008. J. Climate, 24, 5914–5934.
Erlick, C., and D. Schlesinger, 2008: Another look at the influence of absorbing aerosols in drops on cloud absorption: Large aerosols. J. Atmos. Sci., 65, 661–669.
Evan, A. T., A. K. Heidinger, and D. J. Vimont, 2007: Arguments against a physical long-term trend in global ISCCP cloud amounts. Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L04701, doi:10.1029/2006GL028083.
Facchini, M. C., M. Mircea, S. Fuzzi, and R. J. Charlson, 1999: Cloud albedo enhancement by surface-active organic solutes in growing droplets. Nature, 401, 257–259.
Faloona, I., and Coauthors, 2005: Observations of entrainment in eastern Pacific marine stratocumulus using three conserved scalars. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 3268–3285.
Feingold, G., 2003: Modeling of the first indirect effect: Analysis of measurement requirements. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1997, doi:10.1029/2003GL017967.
Feingold, G., and P. Y. Chuang, 2002: Analysis of the influence of film-forming compounds on droplet growth: Implications for cloud microphysical processes and climate. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 2006–2018.
Feingold, G., and H. Siebert, 2009: Cloud-aerosol interactions from the micro to the cloud scale. Clouds in the Perturbed Climate System: Their Relationship to Energy Balance, Atmospheric Dynamics, and Precipitation, J. Heintzenberg and R. Charlson, Eds., MIT Press, 319–338.
Feingold, G., W. Cotton, B. Stevens, and A. S. Frisch, 1996: The relationship between drop in-cloud residence time and drizzle production in numerically simulated stratocumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 1108–1122.
Feingold, G., I. Koren, H. Wang, H. Xue, and W. Brewer, 2010: Precipitation-generated oscillations in open cellular cloud fields. Nature, 466, 849–852.
Ferek, R. J., and Coauthors, 2000: Drizzle suppression in ship tracks. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 2707–2728.
Field, P. R., and R. Wood, 2007: Precipitation and cloud structure in midlatitude cyclones. J. Climate, 20, 233–254.
Fountoukis, C., and Coauthors, 2007: Aerosol-cloud drop concentration closure for clouds sampled during the International Consortium for Atmospheric Research on Transport and Transformation 2004 campaign. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D10S30, doi:10.1029/2006JD007272.
Fridlind, A. M., A. S. Ackerman, G. McFarquhar, G. Zhang, M. R. Poellot, P. J. DeMott, A. J. Prenni, and A. J. Heymsfield, 2007: Ice properties of single-layer stratocumulus during the Mixed-Phase Arctic Cloud Experiment: 2. Model results. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D24202, doi:10.1029/2007JD008646.
Garay, M., R. Davies, C. Averill, and J. Westphal, 2004: Actinoform clouds: Overlooked examples of cloud self-organization at the mesoscale. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 85, 1585–1594.
Garratt, J. R., 1992: The Atmospheric Boundary Layer. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 316 pp.
Garratt, J. R., and R. A. Brost, 1981: Radiative cooling effects within and above the nocturnal boundary-layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 2730–2746.
Garreaud, R. D., and J. Rutllant, 2003: Coastal lows along the subtropical west coast of South America: Numerical simulation of a typical case. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 891–908.
Garreaud, R. D., and R. Muñoz, 2004: The diurnal cycle in circulation and cloudiness over the subtropical southeast Pacific: A modeling study. J. Climate, 17, 1699–1710.
Garreaud, R. D., J. Rutllant, J. Quintana, J. Carrasco, and P. Minnis, 2001: CIMAR-5: A snapshot of the lower troposphere over the subtropical southeast Pacific. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 82, 2193–2207.
Garreaud, R. D., J. Rutllant, and H. Fuenzalida, 2002: Coastal lows along the subtropical west coast of South America: Mean structure and evolution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 75–88.
Garrett, T. J., L. F. Radke, and P. V. Hobbs, 2002: Aerosol effects on cloud emissivity and surface longwave heating in the Arctic. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 769–778.
Geoffroy, O., J. L. Brenguier, and I. Sandu, 2008: Relationship between drizzle rate, liquid water path and droplet concentration at the scale of a stratocumulus cloud system. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 4641–4654.
George, R. C., and R. Wood, 2010: Subseasonal variability of low cloud properties over the southeast Pacific Ocean. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 4047–4063.
Gerber, H., 1996: Microphysics of marine stratocumulus with two drizzle modes. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 1649–1662.
Gerber, H., G. Frick, S. P. Malinowski, J. L. Brenguier, and F. Burnet, 2005: Holes and entrainment in stratocumulus. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 443–459.
Ghan, S. J., G. Guzman, and H. Abdul-Razzak, 1998: Competition between sea salt and sulfate particles as cloud condensation nuclei. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 3340–3347.
Glantz, P., K. J. Noone, and S. R. Osborne, 2003: Scavenging efficiencies of aerosol particles in marine stratocumulus and cumulus clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 129, 1329–1350.
Greenwald, T. J., G. L. Stephens, S. A. Christopher, and T. H. VonderHaar, 1995: Observations of the global characteristics and regional radiative effects of marine cloud liquid water. J. Climate, 8, 2928–2946.
Gultepe, I., and G. A. Isaac, 2004: Aircraft observations of cloud droplet number concentration: Implications for climate studies. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 130, 2377–2390.
Hahn, C. J., and S. G. Warren, 2007: A gridded climatology of clouds over land (1971–96) and ocean (1954–97) from surface observations worldwide. Numeric Data Package NDP-026E ORNL/CDIAC-153, CDIAC, Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN.
Hahn, C. J., W. B. Rossow, and S. G. Warren, 2001: ISCCP cloud properties associated with standard cloud types identified in individual surface observations. J. Climate, 14, 11–28.
Hakim, G. J., 2003: Developing wave packets in the North Pacific storm track. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 342–355.
Hall, W. D., 1980: A detailed microphysical model within a two-dimensional dynamic framework: Model description and preliminary results. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2486–2507.
Haman, K. E., S. P. Malinowski, M. J. Kurowski, H. Gerber, and J. L. Brenguier, 2007: Small scale mixing processes at the top of a marine stratocumulus—A case study. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 133, 213–226.
Hansen, J. E., and L. D. Travis, 1974: Light scattering in planetary atmospheres. Space Sci. Rev., 16, 527–610.
Hanson, H. P., 1991: Marine stratocumulus climatologies. Int. J. Climatol., 11, 147–164.
Hartmann, D. L., 1994: Global Physical Climatology. Academic Press, 408 pp.
Hartmann, D. L., and D. Short, 1980: On the use of earth radiation budget statistics for studies of clouds and climate. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 1233–1250.
Hartmann, D. L., M. E. Ockert-Bell, and M. L. Michelsen, 1992: The effect of cloud type on earth’s energy balance—Global analysis. J. Climate, 5, 1281–1304.
Haywood, J. M., and K. P. Shine, 1997: Multi-spectral calculations of the direct radiative forcing of tropospheric sulphate and soot aerosols using a column model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 123, 1907–1930.
Henrion, X., H. Sauvageot, and D. Ramond, 1978: Finestructure of precipitation and temperature in a stratocumulus cloud. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 2315–2324.
Hermann, G., and R. Goody, 1976: Formation and persistence of summertime arctic stratus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 1537–1553.
Hignett, P., 1991: Observations of diurnal variation in a cloud-capped marine boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 1474–1482.
Hobbs, P. V., and A. L. Rangno, 1998: Microstructures of low and middle-level clouds over the Beaufort Sea. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 124, 2035–2071.
Hogan, R. J., A. L. M. Grant, A. J. Illingworth, G. N. Pearson, and E. J. O’Connor, 2009: Vertical velocity variance and skewness in clear and cloud-topped boundary layers as revealed by Doppler lidar. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 135, 635–643.
Howell, W. E., 1949: The growth of cloud drops in uniformly cooled air. J. Meteor., 6, 134–149.
Hu, Y. X., and K. Stamnes, 1993: An accurate parameterization of the radiative properties of water clouds suitable for use in climate models. J. Climate, 6, 728–742.
Hudson, J. G., 2007: Variability of the relationship between particle size and cloud-nucleating ability. Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L08801, doi:10.1029/2006GL028850.
Huffman, G. J., and G. A. Norman, 1988: The supercooled warm rain process and the specification of freezing precipitation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 2172–2182.
Isaksen, I. S. A., and Coauthors, 2009: Atmospheric composition change: Climate–chemistry interactions. Atmos. Environ., 43, 5138–5192.
Jensen, J. B., S. Lee, P. B. Krummel, J. Katzfey, and D. Gogoasa, 2000: Precipitation in marine cumulus and stratocumulus. Part I: Thermodynamic and dynamic observations of closed cell circulations and cumulus bands. Atmos. Res., 54, 117–155.
Jiang, H., G. Feingold, and W. R. Cotton, 2002: Simulations of aerosol-cloud-dynamical feedbacks resulting from entrainment of aerosol into the marine boundary layer during the Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition Experiment. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4813, doi:10.1029/2001JD001502.
Jiang, H., G. Feingold, and A. Sorooshian, 2010: Effect of aerosol on the susceptibility and efficiency of precipitation in warm trade cumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 67, 3525–3540.
Jonas, P. R., 1996: Turbulence and cloud microphysics. Atmos. Res., 40, 283–306.
Jones, C., C. Bretherton, and D. Leon, 2011: Coupled vs. decoupled boundary layers in VOCALS-REx. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 7143–7153.
Jonker, H., P. Duynkerke, and J. Cuijpers, 1999: Mesoscale fluctuations in scalars generated by boundary layer convection. J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 801–808.
Junge, C., and E. McLaren, 1971: Relationship of cloud nuclei spectra to aerosol size distribution and composition. J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 382–390.
Kajikawa, M., K. Kikuchi, Y. Asuma, Y. Inoue, and N. Sato, 2000: Supercooled drizzle formed by condensation-coalescence in the mid-winter season of the Canadian Arctic. Atmos. Res., 52, 293–301.
Kawa, S. R., and R. Pearson Jr., 1989: An observational study of stratocumulus entrainment and thermodynamics. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 2649–2661.
Kessler, E., 1969: On the Distribution and Continuity of Water Substance in Atmospheric Circulation. Meteor. Monogr., No. 10, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 84 pp.
Khain, A., M. Ovchinnikov, M. Pinsky, A. Pokrovsky, and H. Krugliak, 2000: Notes on the state-of-the-art numerical modeling of cloud microphysics. Atmos. Res., 55, 159–224.
Khairoutdinov, M., and Y. Kogan, 2000: A new cloud physics parameterization in a large-eddy simulation model of marine stratocumulus. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 229–243.
Kim, B. G., S. A. Klein, and J. R. Norris, 2005: Continental liquid water cloud variability and its parameterization using Atmospheric Radiation Measurement data. J. Geophys. Res., 110, D15S08, doi:10.1029/2004JD005122.
King, M. D., and Harshvardhan, 1986: Comparative accuracy of selected multiple scattering approximations. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 784–801.
King, M. D., S.-C. Tsay, S. E. Platnick, M. Wang, and K.-N. Liou, 1997: Cloud retrieval algorithms for MODIS: Optical thickness, effective particle radius, and thermodynamic phase. MODIS Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document ATBD-MOD-05, NASA, 78 pp.
Klein, S. A., 1997: Synoptic variability of low-cloud properties and meteorological parameters in the subtropical trade wind boundary layer. J. Climate, 10, 2018–2039.
Klein, S. A., and D. L. Hartmann, 1993: The seasonal cycle of low stratiform clouds. J. Climate, 6, 1588–1606.
Klein, S. A., and C. Jakob, 1999: Validation and sensitivities of frontal clouds simulated by the ECMWF model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 2514–2531.
Klein, S. A., D. L. Hartmann, and J. R. Norris, 1995: On the relationships among low-cloud structure, sea surface temperature, and atmospheric circulation in the summertime northeast Pacific. J. Climate, 8, 1140–1155.
Kloesel, K. A., 1992: A 70-year history of marine stratocumulus cloud field experiments off the coast of California. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 73, 1581–1585.
Kogan, Y. L., and W. J. Martin, 1994: Parameterization of bulk condensation in numerical models. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1728–1739.
Kogan, Y. L., M. P. Khairoutdinov, D. K. Lilly, Z. N. Kogan, and Q. Liu, 1995: The simulation of a convective cloud in a 3-D model with explicit microphysics. Part I: Model description and sensitivity experiments. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2923–2940.
Kollias, P., and B. Albrecht, 2000: The turbulence structure in a continental stratocumulus cloud from millimeter-wavelength radar observations. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 2417–2434.
Kollias, P., G. Tselioudis, and B. A. Albrecht, 2007: Cloud climatology at the Southern Great Plains and the layer structure, drizzle, and atmospheric modes of continental stratus. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D09116, doi:10.1029/2006JD007307.
Koponen, I. K., A. Virkkula, R. Hillamo, V. M. Kerminen, and M. Kulmala, 2003: Number size distributions and concentrations of the continental summer aerosols in Queen Maud Land, Antarctica. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4587, doi:10.1029/2003JD003614.
Kraus, E., 1963: The diurnal precipitation change over the sea. J. Atmos. Sci., 20, 551–556.
Krueger, S. K., G. T. McLean, and Q. Fu, 1995a: Numerical simulation of the stratus-to-cumulus transition in the subtropical marine boundary layer. Part I: Boundary-layer structure. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2839–2850.
Krueger, S. K., G. T. McLean, and Q. Fu, 1995b: Numerical simulation of the stratus-to-cumulus transition in the subtropical marine boundary layer. Part II: Boundary layer circulation. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2851–2868.
Kubar, T. L., D. L. Hartmann, and R. Wood, 2009: On the importance of macrophysics and microphysics for precipitation in warm clouds. Part I: Satellite observations. J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 2953–2972.
Kulmala, M., A. Laaksonen, P. Korhonen, T. Vesala, T. Ahonen, and J. C. Barrett, 1993: The effect of atmospheric nitric-acid vapor on cloud condensation nucleus activation. J. Geophys. Res., 98 (D12), 22 949–22 958.
Kuo, H.-C., and W. H. Schubert, 1988: Stability of cloud-topped boundary layers. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 114, 887–916.
Larson, V. E., K. E. Kotenberg, and N. B. Wood, 2007: An analytic longwave radiation formula for liquid layer clouds. Mon. Wea. Rev., 135, 689–699.
Lau, N. C., and M. W. Crane, 1997: Comparing satellite and surface observations of cloud patterns in synoptic-scale circulation systems. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 3172–3189.
Lawson, R. P., B. A. Baker, C. G. Schmitt, and T. L. Jensen, 2001: An overview of microphysical properties of Arctic clouds observed in May and July 1998 during FIRE ACE. J. Geophys. Res., 106 (D14), 14 989–15 014.
Leaitch, W. R., and Coauthors, 1996: Physical and chemical observations in marine stratus during the 1993 North Atlantic Regional Experiment: Factors controlling cloud droplet number concentrations. J. Geophys. Res., 101 (D22), 29 123–29 135.
Lebsock, M. D., T. S. L’Ecuyer, and G. L. Stephens, 2011: Detecting the ratio of rain and cloud water in low-latitude shallow marine clouds. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 50, 419–432.
L’Ecuyer, T. S., W. Berg, J. Haynes, M. Lebsock, and T. Takemura, 2009: Global observations of aerosol impacts on precipitation occurrence in warm maritime clouds. J. Geophys. Res., 114, D09211, doi:10.1029/2008JD011273.
Lee, S. S., J. E. Penner, and S. M. Saleeby, 2009: Aerosol effects on liquid-water path of thin stratocumulus clouds. J. Geophys. Res., 114, D07204, doi:10.1029/2008JD010513.
Lenderink, G., and A. P. Siebesma, 2004: On the role of drizzle in stratocumulus and its implications for large-eddy simulation. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 130, 3429–3434.
Lenschow, D. H., and B. B. Stankov, 1986: Length scales in the convective boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 1190–1209.
Lenschow, D. H., M. Y. Zhou, X. B. Zeng, L. S. Chen, and X. D. Xu, 2000: Measurements of fine-scale structure at the top of marine stratocumulus. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 97, 331–357.
Leon, D. C., Z. Wang, and D. Liu, 2008: Climatology of drizzle in marine boundary layer clouds based on 1 year of data from CloudSat and Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO). J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00A14, doi:10.1029/2008JD009835.
Lewellen, D. C., and W. S. Lewellen, 1998: Large-eddy boundary layer entrainment. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 2645–2665.
Lewellen, D. C., and W. S. Lewellen, 2002: Entrainment and decoupling relations for cloudy boundary layers. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 2966–2986.
Li, J., J. W. Geldart, and P. Chylek, 1994: Solar radiative-transfer in clouds with vertical internal inhomogeneity. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2542–2552.
Lilly, D. K., 1968: Models of cloud-topped mixed layers under a strong inversion. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 94, 292–309.
Lilly, D. K., 2002: Entrainment into mixed layers. Part II: A new closure. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 3353–3361.
Lilly, D. K., and B. Stevens, 2008: Validation of a mixed-layer closure. I: Theoretical tests. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 134, 47–55.
Liou, K.-N., 1992: Radiation and Cloud Processes in the Atmosphere: Theory, Observation and Modeling. Oxford University Press, 504 pp.
Liu, Y., and P. H. Daum, 2004: On the parameterization of the autoconversion process. Part I: Analytical formulation of the Kessler-type parameterizations. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 1539–1548.
Locatelli, J. D., P. V. Hobbs, and K. R. Biswas, 1983: Precipitation from stratocumulus clouds affected by fallstreaks and artificial seeding. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 1393–1403.
Lock, A. P., 1998: The parametrization of entrainment in cloudy boundary layers. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 124, 2729–2754.
Lock, A. P., 2009: Factors influencing cloud area at the capping inversion for shallow cumulus clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 135, 941–952.
Lohmann, U., and J. Feichter, 2005: Global indirect aerosol effects: A review. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 715–737.
Long, A. B., 1974: Solutions to the droplet collection equation for polynomial kernels. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1040–1052.
Lu, M. L., W. C. Conant, H. H. Jonsson, V. Varutbangkul, R. C. Flagan, and J. H. Seinfeld, 2007: The Marine Stratus/Stratocumulus Experiment (MASE): Aerosol-cloud relationships in marine stratocumulus. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D10209, doi:10.1029/2006JD007985.
Lu, M. L., A. Sorooshian, H. H. Jonsson, G. Feingold, R. C. Flagan, and J. H. Seinfeld, 2009: Marine stratocumulus aerosol-cloud relationships in the MASE-II experiment: Precipitation susceptibility in eastern Pacific marine stratocumulus. J. Geophys. Res., 114, D24203, doi:10.1029/2009JD012774.
MacVean, M. K., 1993: A numerical investigation of the criterion for cloud-top entrainment instability. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 2481–2495.
MacVean, M. K., and P. J. Mason, 1990: Cloud-top entrainment instability through small-scale mixing and its parameterization in numerical models. J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 1012–1030.
Martin, G. M., D. W. Johnson, and A. Spice, 1994: The measurement and parameterization of effective radius of droplets in warm stratocumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1823–1842.
Martin, G. M., D. W. Johnson, D. P. Rogers, P. R. Jonas, P. Minnis, and D. A. Hegg, 1995: Observations of the interaction between cumulus clouds and warm stratocumulus clouds in the marine boundary layer during ASTEX. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2902–2922.
McFarquhar, G. M., G. Zhang, M. R. Poellot, G. L. Kok, R. McCoy, T. Tooman, A. Fridlind, and A. J. Heymsfield, 2007: Ice properties of single-layer stratocumulus during the Mixed-Phase Arctic Cloud Experiment: 1. Observations. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D24201, doi:10.1029/2007JD008633.
McFiggans, G., and Coauthors, 2006: The effect of physical and chemical aerosol properties on warm cloud droplet activation. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2593–2649.
Mechem, D. B., and Y. Kogan, 2003: Simulating the transition from drizzling marine stratocumulus to boundary layer cumulus with a mesoscale model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 2342–2360.
Mechem, D. B., Y. Kogan, and D. M. Schultz, 2010: Large-eddy observation of post-cold-frontal continental stratocumulus. J. Atmos. Sci., 67, 3368–3383.
Mellado, B., 2010: The evaporatively driven cloud-top mixing layer. J. Fluid Mech., 660, 5–36.
Miles, N. L., J. Verlinde, and E. E. Clothiaux, 2000: Cloud droplet size distributions in low-level stratiform clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 295–311.
Miller, M. A., and B. A. Albrecht, 1995: Surface-based observations of mesoscale cumulus-stratocumulus interaction during ASTEX. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2809–2826.
Miller, M. A., M. P. Jensen, and E. E. Clothiaux, 1998: Diurnal cloud and thermodynamic variations in the stratocumulus transition regime: A case study using in situ and remote sensors. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 2294–2310.
Mitchell, T. P., and J. M. Wallace, 1992: The annual cycle in equatorial convection and sea surface temperature. J. Climate, 5, 1140–1156.
Moeng, C. H., S. H. Shen, and D. A. Randall, 1992: Physical processes within the nocturnal stratus-topped boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 2384–2401.
Moeng, C. H., and Coauthors, 1996: Simulation of a stratocumulus-topped planetary boundary layer: Intercomparison among different numerical codes. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 77, 261–278.
Moeng, C. H., B. Stevens, and P. P. Sullivan, 2005: Where is the interface of the stratocumulus-topped PBL? J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 2626–2631.
Mordy, W., 1959: Computations of the growth by condensation of a population of cloud droplets. Tellus, 11, 16–44.
Moyer, K. A., and G. S. Young, 1994: Observations of mesoscale cellular convection from the marine stratocumulus phase of fire. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 71, 109–134.
Nakajima, T., M. D. King, J. D. Spinhirne, and L. F. Radke, 1991: Determination of the optical thickness and effective particle radius of clouds from reflected solar radiation measurements: 2. Marine stratocumulus observations. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 728–750.
Nastrom, G., and K. Gage, 1985: A climatology of atmospheric wavenumber spectra of wind and temperature observed by commercial aircraft. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 950–960.
Neiburger, M., D. S. Johnson, and C. W. Chien, 1961: Studies of the structure of the atmosphere over the eastern Pacific Ocean in summer: Part 1. The inversion over the eastern North Pacific Ocean. University of California Publ. in Meteorology, Vol. 1, University of California Press, 94 pp.
Nenes, A., and J. H. Seinfeld, 2003: Parameterization of cloud droplet formation in global climate models. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4415, doi:10.1029/2002JD002911.
Nenes, A., R. J. Charlson, M. C. Facchini, M. Kulmala, A. Laaksonen, and J. H. Seinfeld, 2002: Can chemical effects on cloud droplet number rival the first indirect effect? Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1848, doi:10.1029/2002GL015295.
Nicholls, S., 1984: The dynamics of stratocumulus: Aircraft observations and comparisons with a mixed layer model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 110, 783–820.
Nicholls, S., 1987: A model of drizzle growth in warm, turbulent, stratiform clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 113, 1141–1170.
Nicholls, S., 1989: The structure of radiatively driven convection in stratocumulus. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 115, 487–511.
Nicholls, S., and J. Leighton, 1986: An observational study of the structure of stratiform cloud sheets: Part I. Structure. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 431–460.
Nicholls, S., and J. D. Turton, 1986: An observational study of the structure of stratiform cloud sheets: Part II. Entrainment. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 461–480.
Nieuwstadt, F. T. M., and J. A. Businger, 1984: Radiative cooling near the top of a cloudy mixed layer. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 110, 1073–1078.
Nieuwstadt, F. T. M., and P. G. Duynkerke, 1996: Turbulence in the atmospheric boundary layer. Atmos. Res., 40, 111–142.
Norris, J. R., 1998: Low cloud type over the ocean from surface observations. Part I: Relationship to surface meteorology and the vertical distribution of temperature and moisture. J. Climate, 11, 369–382.
Norris, J. R., and C. B. Leovy, 1994: Interannual variability in stratiform cloudiness and sea surface temperature. J. Climate, 7, 1915–1925.
Norris, J. R., and S. A. Klein, 2000: Low cloud type over the ocean from surface observations. Part III: Relationship to vertical motion and the regional synoptic environment. J. Climate, 13, 245–256.
Norris, J. R., and A. Slingo, 2009: Trends in observed cloudiness and Earth’s radiation budget: What do we not know and what do we need to know? Clouds in the Perturbed Climate System: Their Relationship to Energy Balance, Atmospheric Dynamics, and Precipitation, J. Heintzenberg and R. Charlson, Eds., MIT Press, 17–36.
Norris, J. R., Y. Zhang, and J. M. Wallace, 1998: Role of low clouds in summertime atmosphere–ocean interactions over the North Pacific. J. Climate, 11, 2482–2490.
Nucciarone, J. J., and G. S. Young, 1991: Aircraft measurements of turbulence spectra in the marine stratocumulus-topped boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 2382–2392.
O’Dell, C. W., F. J. Wentz, and R. Bennartz, 2008: Cloud liquid water path from satellite-based passive microwave observations: A new climatology over the global oceans. J. Climate, 21, 1721–1738.
O’Dowd, C. D., J. A. Lowe, M. H. Smith, B. Davison, C. N. Hewitt, and R. M. Harrison, 1997: Biogenic sulphur emissions and inferred non-sea-salt-sulphate cloud condensation nuclei in and around Antarctica. J. Geophys. Res., 102 (D11), 12 839–12 854.
O’Dowd, C. D., J. A. Lowe, M. H. Smith, and A. D. Kaye, 1999a: The relative importance of non-sea-salt sulphate and sea-salt aerosol to the marine cloud condensation nuclei population: An improved multi-component aerosol-cloud droplet parametrization. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 125, 1295–1313.
O’Dowd, C. D., J. A. Lowe, and M. H. Smith, 1999b: Coupling sea-salt and sulphate interactions and its impact on cloud droplet concentration predictions. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1311–1314.
O’Hirok, W., and C. Gautier, 1998: A three-dimensional radiative transfer model to investigate the solar radiation within a cloudy atmosphere. Part II: Spectral effects. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 3065–3076.
Ohtake, T., 1963: Hemispheric investigations of warm rain by radiosonde data. J. Appl. Meteor., 2, 594–607.
Paltridge, G. W., 1974: Infrared emissivity, shortwave albedo, and the microphysics of stratiform water clouds. J. Geophys. Res., 79, 4053–4058.
Paluch, I. R., and D. H. Lenschow, 1991: Stratiform cloud formation in the marine boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 2141–2158.
Paluch, I. R., D. H. Lenschow, S. Siems, S. McKeen, G. L. Kok, and R. D. Schillawski, 1994: Evolution of the subtropical marine boundary-layer–comparison of soundings over the eastern Pacific from FIRE and HARP. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1465–1479.
Park, S., C. B. Leovy, and M. A. Rozendaal, 2004: A new heuristic marine boundary layer cloud model. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 3002–3024.
Park, S., C. Deser, and M. Alexander, 2005: Estimation of the surface heat flux response to sea surface temperature anomalies over the global oceans. J. Climate, 18, 4582–4599.
Pawlowska, H., and J. L. Brenguier, 2003: An observational study of drizzle formation in stratocumulus clouds for general circulation model (GCM) parameterizations. J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8630, doi:10.1029/2002JD002679.
Petters, M. D., J. R. Snider, B. Stevens, G. Vali, I. Faloona, and L. Russell, 2006: Accumulation mode aerosol, pockets of open cells, and particle nucleation in the remote subtropical Pacific marine boundary layer. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D02206, doi:10.1029/2004JD005694.
Petty, G. W., 1995: Frequencies and characteristics of global oceanic precipitation from shipboard present-weather reports. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 76, 1593–1616.
Pinnick, R. G., S. G. Jennings, P. Chylek, and H. J. Auvermann, 1979: Verification of a linear relation between IR extinction, absorption and liquid water-content of fogs. J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 1577–1586.
Pinsky, M. B., and A. P. Khain, 1997: Turbulence effects on droplet growth and size distribution in clouds–a review. J. Aerosol Sci., 28, 1177–1214.
Pinsky, M. B., A. P. Khain, and M. Shapiro, 2001: Collision efficiency of drops in a wide range of Reynolds numbers: Effects of pressure on spectrum evolution. J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 742–764.
Platnick, S., and S. Twomey, 1994: Determining the susceptibility of cloud albedo to changes in droplet concentration with the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer. J. Appl. Meteor., 33, 334–347.
Platt, C. M. R., 1976: Infrared absorption and liquid water content in stratocumulus clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 553–556.
Pruppacher, H. R., and J. D. Klett, 1997: Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 976 pp.
Ramaswamy, V., and S. M. Freidenreich, 1991: Solar radiative line-by-line determination of water vapor absorption and water cloud extinction in inhomogeneous atmospheres. J. Geophys. Res., 96 (D5), 9133–9157.
Randall, D. A., 1980: Conditional instability of the first kind upside down. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 125–130.
Randall, D. A., 1984: Stratocumulus cloud deepening through entrainment. Tellus, 36A, 446–457.
Randall, D. A., and M. J. Suarez, 1984: On the dynamics of stratocumulus formation and dissipation. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 3052–3057.
Randall, D. A., J. A. Coakley, C. W. Fairall, R. A. Knopfli, and D. H. Lenschow, 1984: Outlook for research on marine subtropical stratocumulus clouds. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 65, 1290–1301.
Rangno, A. L., and P. V. Hobbs, 1991: Ice particle concentrations and precipitation development in small polar maritime cumuliform clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 117, 207–241.
Rasmussen, R. M., I. Geresdi, G. Thompson, K. Manning, and E. Karplus, 2002: Freezing drizzle formation in stably stratified layer clouds: The role of radiative cooling of cloud droplets, cloud condensation nuclei, and ice initiation. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 837–860.
Richter, I., and C. R. Mechoso, 2004: Orographic influences on the annual cycle of Namibian stratocumulus clouds. Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L24108, doi:10.1029/2004GL020814.
Richter, I., and C. R. Mechoso, 2006: Orographic influences on subtropical stratocumulus. J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 2585–2601.
Riehl, H., and J. S. Malkus, 1957: On the heat balance and maintenance of circulation in the trades. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 83, 21–29.
Riehl, H., T. C. Yeh, J. S. Malkus, and N. E. LaSeur, 1951: The north-east trade of the Pacific Ocean. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 77, 598–626.
Roach, W. T., 1961: Some aircraft observations of fluxes of solar radiation in the atmosphere. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 87, 346–363.
Roach, W. T., and A. Slingo, 1979: A high resolution infrared radiative transfer scheme to study the interaction of radiation with cloud. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 105, 603–614.
Roach, W. T., R. Brown, S. J. Caughey, B. A. Crease, and A. Slingo, 1982: A field-study of nocturnal stratocumulus: 1. Mean structure and budgets. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 108, 103–123.
Rogers, D. P., and D. Koracin, 1992: Radiative transfer and turbulence in the cloud-topped marine atmospheric boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 1473–1486.
Rossow, W. B., and W. B. Garder, 1993: Cloud detection using satellite measurements of infrared and visible radiances for ISCCP. J. Climate, 6, 2341–2369.
Rossow, W. B., C. Delo, and B. Cairns, 2002: Implications of the observed mesoscale variations of clouds for earth’s radiation budget. J. Climate, 15, 557–585.
Rothermel, J., and E. M. Agee, 1980: Aircraft investigation of mesoscale cellular convection during AMTEX75. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 1027–1040.
Rozendaal, M. A., C. B. Leovy, and S. A. Klein, 1995: An observational study of the diurnal cycle of marine stratiform cloud. J. Climate, 8, 1795–1809.
Rutledge, S. A., and P. V. Hobbs, 1983: The mesoscale and microscale structure and organization of clouds and precipitation in midlatitude cyclones. VIII: A model for the “seeder-feeder” process in warm-frontal rainbands. J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 1185–1206.
Sandu, I., B. Stevens, and R. Pincus, 2010: On the transitions in marine boundary layer cloudiness. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 10, 2377–2391.